Conversion of non-Islamic places of worship into mosques

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Hagia Sophia, an Eastern Orthodox cathedral converted into a mosque in AD 1453.

The conversion of non-Islamic places of worship into mosques occurred during the life of Muhammad[citation needed] and continued during subsequent Islamic conquests and invasions and under historical Muslim rule.[citation needed] Hindu temples, Jain Temples, churches, synagogues, and Zoroastrian fire temples have been converted into mosques.

Several such mosques in the areas of former Muslim rule have since been reconverted or have become museums, including the Parthenon in Greece and numerous mosques in Spain, such as Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba. Conversion of non-Islamic buildings into mosques influenced distinctive regional styles of Islamic architecture.

Qur'anic holy sites[edit]

Mecca[edit]

Before Muhammad, the Kaaba and Mecca (referred to as Bakkah in the Quran), were revered as a sacred sanctuary and were sites of pilgrimage.[1] During Muhammad's lifetime (AD 570–632), his tribe, the Quraysh, was in charge of the Kaʿaba, at that time a shrine containing hundreds of idols representing Arabian tribal gods and other religious figures. Muhammad earned the enmity of his tribe by preaching the new religion of Islam. Early Muslims practiced, or attempted to practice, their rituals by the Ka'aba alongside polytheists, until they eventually left Mecca, driven out by escalating persecution. The aborted first pilgrimage, which was prevented by the Quraysh, who promised to allow it the following year in the Hudaybiyah treaty, did not also entail the prevention of continuing practices by polytheists. However, before the second pilgrimage season, allies of the Quraysh violated the treaty, allowing the Muslims to return as conquerors rather than guests. Henceforth, the Kaʿaba was to be dedicated to the worship of the one God alone, and the idols were destroyed. The Black Stone (al-Hajar-ul-Aswad) at the Kaʿaba was a special object of veneration at the site. According to some traditions the text of seven or ten especially honoured poems were suspended around the Kaʿaba.[2]

Jerusalem[edit]

Dome of the Rock is a shrine in Jerusalem. Prophet Muhammad, founder of Islam, is traditionally believed to have ascended into heaven from this site. In Jewish tradition, it is here that Abraham, the progenitor and first patriarch of the Hebrew people, is said to have prepared to sacrifice his son Isaac. The Dome and Al-Aqsa Mosque are both located on the Temple Mount the site of Solomon's Temple and its successors.

Upon the capture of Jerusalem, it is commonly reported that Umar refused to pray in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in spite of a treaty.[3][better source needed] The architecturally similar Dome of the Rock was built on the Temple Mount, which was an abandoned and disused area since AD 70 in the 7th century but which had previously been the site of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem, the most sacred site in Judaism.[4] Umar initially built there a small prayer house which laid the foundation for the later construction of the Al-Aqsa Mosque by the Umayyads.[5]

Conversion of church buildings[edit]

Europe[edit]

Albania[edit]

Bosnia and Herzegovina[edit]

Fethija Mosque in Bihać, Bosnia

The Fethija Mosque (since 1592) of Bihać was a Catholic church devoted to Saint Anthony of Padua (1266).[6]

Cyprus[edit]

Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque

Following the Ottoman conquest of Cyprus, a number of churches (especially the Catholic ones) were converted into mosques. A relatively significant surge in church-to-mosque conversion followed the 1974 Turkish Invasion of Cyprus. Many of the Orthodox churches in Northern Cyprus have been converted, and many are still in the process of becoming mosques[citation needed].

Greece[edit]

Painting of the ruins of the Parthenon and the Ottoman mosque built after 1715, in the early 1830s

Numerous orthodox churches were converted to mosques during the Ottoman period in Greece. After the Greek War of Independence, many of them were later reconverted into churches. Among them:

The Rotunda of Galerius in Thessaloniki, initially a Mausoleum of Roman Emperor Galerius, a church (326–1590), then a mosque and again a church after 1912

Hungary[edit]

Following the Ottoman conquest of the Kingdom of Hungary, a number of churches were converted into mosques. Those that survived the era of Ottoman rule, were later reconverted into churches after the Great Turkish War.

  • Church of Our Lady of Buda, converted into Eski Djami immediately after the capture of Buda in 1541, reconverted in 1686.
  • Church of Mary Magdalene, Buda, converted into Fethiye Djami c. 1602, reconverted in 1686.[citation needed]
  • The Franciscan Church of St John the Baptist in Buda, converted into Pasha Djami, destroyed in 1686.[citation needed]

Spain[edit]

A Catholic church dedicated to Saint Vincent of Lérins, was built by the Visigoths in Córdoba; during the reign of Abd al-Rahman I, it was converted into a mosque.[7][8][9] In the time of the Reconquista, Christian rule was reestablished and the building became a church once again, the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Assumption.[7][8][9]

Ukraine[edit]

After the Ottomans conquered Mangup, the capital of Principality of Theodoro, a prayer for the Sultan recited in one of the churches which converted into a mosque, and according to Turkish authors "the house of the infidel became the house of Islam."[10][better source needed]

Middle East and North Africa[edit]

Iraq[edit]

The Islamic State converted a number of churches into mosques after they occupied Mosul in 2014. The churches were restored to their original function after Mosul was liberated in 2017.[11]

Israel and Palestinian territories[edit]

After the conquest of Hebron, this holy place was "taken over from the Jewish tradition" by the Muslim rulers. The cave and the surrounding Herodian enclosure was converted into a mosque.[12]

The Herodian shrine of the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron, the second most holy site in Judaism,[15] was converted into a church during the Crusades before being turned into a mosque in 1266 and henceforth banned to Jews and Christians.[16] Part of it was restored as a synagogue by Israel after 1967.[17] Other sites in Hebron have undergone Islamification. The Tomb of Jesse and Ruth became the Church of the Forty Martyrs,[18] which then became the Tomb of Isai and later Deir Al Arba'een.[19]

Lebanon[edit]

Morocco[edit]

Syria[edit]

The Umayyad Mosque was built on the site of several prior religious sites.

Turkey[edit]

Istanbul[edit]

Hagia Sophia[edit]

Following the Ottoman conquest of Anatolia, virtually all of the churches of Istanbul were converted into mosques except the Church of Saint Mary of the Mongols.[23]

Other churches[edit]

Rest of Turkey[edit]

The Selimiye Mosque was the largest and oldest surviving Gothic church in Cyprus, which was possibly constructed on the site of an earlier Byzantine church.

Elsewhere in Turkey numerous churches were converted into mosques, including:

Orthodox[edit]
  • Parkhali Monastery in Artvin
  • Khakhuli Monastery in Erzurum
    • Armenian Apostolic[edit]

    Hundreds of Armenian Churches were converted into Mosques in Turkey and Azerbaijan[citation needed].

    Conversion of Hindu temples[edit]

    Before the Arab arrival of Islam in the 7th century, Hinduism was one of the major religions practiced in modern day Afghanistan. However, Afghan Hindu population dwindled to just 30-40 individuals in 2021 due to Religious persecution, discrimination, and forced conversion of Hindus in Afghanistan perpetrated by Muslims, accompanied by mass destruction and conversion of Hindu temples into mosques throughout Afghanistan.

    Similarly, Hindus in Pakistan faced a similar fate. At independence in 1947, Hindus composed 20.5 percent of the population of the areas that now form Pakistan, but according to the 2017 census results, they now stand at a mere 1.6%. This again was accompanied by mass destruction and conversion of Hindu temples into mosques across Pakistan by right wing radical Muslims.

    In 1992, some 30 temples were attacked by Muslim hardliners , 25 of them across the southern province of Sindh, where 85% of the Hindus in Pakistan live.

    During the 2021 anti-Hindu violence in Bangladesh, at least 80 temples (200 mandapas) were damaged by extremist Muslims.

    Temple Name Mosque Name Images City Country Ruler Notes Current Status
    Kashi Vishwanath Temple Gyanvapi Mosque Varanasi, UP India Aurangzeb The temple was demolished under the orders of Aurangzeb, who then constructed the Gyanvapi Mosque atop the original Hindu temple. The demolition was motivated by the rebellion of local zamindars (landowners) associated with the temple.[32] The demolition was intended as a warning to the anti-Mughal factions and Hindu religious leaders in the city.[33] Mosque; temple reconstructed adjacent to Mosque
    Keshavdeva Temple Shahi Edgah Mathura, UP India Aurangzeb attacked Mathura, destroyed the Keshavdeva Temple in 1670 and built the Shahi Eidgah in its place.[34][35] Mosque; temple reconstructed adjacent to Mosque
    Bindu Madhav Temple Alamgir Mosque Varanasi, U.P. India The Alamgir Mosque in Varanasi was constructed by Mughal Emperor Aurnagzeb built atop the ancient 100 ft high Bindu Madhav (Nand Madho) Temple after its destruction in 1682.[36] Mosque
    Somnath Temple Veraval, Gujarat India Mahmud of Ghazni, Alauddin Khalji, Muzaffar Shah I, Mahmud Begada, Aurangzeb The temple was attacked, destroyed and rebuilt multiple times and was converted into an Islamic Mosque in the 19th century.[37] Temple rebuilt
    Jain and Saraswati Temple Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra Ajmer, Rajasthan India Qutb ud-Din Aibak The original building was partially destroyed and converted into a mosque by Qutb ud-Din Aibak of Delhi in the late 12th century.[38] Iltutmish further built the mosque in AD 1213.[39] Mosque
    Rudra Mahalaya Temple Jami Mosque Siddhpur, Gujarat India Ahmad Shah I The temple was dismantled during the siege of the city by Ahmed Shah I (1410–1444) of Muzaffarid dynasty; parts of it were reused in setting up a new congregational mosque.[40] Ruined, partly converted into Mosque
    Hindu and Jain Temples Qutb Minar Complex [image] Delhi India Qutb-ud-din Aibak 27 ancient Hindu and Jain temples were attacked and destroyed by Qutb-ud-din Aibak in 1192 AD during the era of islamic invasion of india. The complex includes

    two mosques, including the Quwwatu'l-Islam, the oldest in northern India, built of materials reused from these hindu temples.

    		Mosques and Minars
    Krishna temple Madrasa and Mosque [image] Ahmedpur Lamma Pakistan The statue of Lord Krishna has been defaced, the main gate of the temple has been closed, signaling a significant shift in the function of the structure. Qadri associated with the madrassa, explained that the location was previously a Hindu temple where poojas (worship rituals) were conducted. The Qadri affirmed that the site has now been repurposed as a mosque and madrassa for over 50 years, with children studying the Quran within its walls. Mosque
    Bhagat Prahlad Temple Madrasa [image] Multan Pakistan Just a little outside the city, located on the top of a mound facing the walled city, once stood the temple of Bhagat Prahlad, the patron Hindu saint of the city of Multan. The was being used as a madrasa, when in 1992 a muslim mob headed towards it. Locals report that there was a class going on at the point when fanatics climbed the building and started bringing it down. The madrasa was permanently shut while the temple suffered heavy losses. Madrasa shut down after heavy losses in 1992 attack
    Sitla Temple Madrasa [image] Lahore Pakistan In the same building, a madrasa is being run. The muslim students of this hindu temple turned madrasa had led the attack in 1992. Once the craziness receded, they went back to studying in the very same building they had vandalized in anger. The missing top of its turret pays testimony to that fateful day. Ruined, converted to a islamic religious school
    Vijay Temple Bijamandal mosque [image] Vidisha, MP India Aurangzeb Ancient Vijay Temple dedicated to Charchika mata, was initially built during 8th century AD and further improvised by the Paramara King Naravarman in 11th century AD. was looted, demolished and converted into Bijamandal mosque by Aurangzeb in 1658 with same raw materials from the demolished temples.
    Bhadrakali Temple Jama Mosque [image] Ahmedabad India Ahmed Shah I The Jama Masjid built in 1424 CE by Ahmed Shah I in Ahmedabad was originally a Hindu temple of Goddess Bhadrakali. Ahmed Shah renamed the city of Karnavati to Ahmedabad after he captured it.
    Adinath Temple Adina Mosque [image] Pandua, Malda District, West Bengal India Sikandar Shah Adina mosque was built by Sikandar Shah in 1358-90 AD, it is said to be one of India’s biggest mosques. It was also an ancient Shiva temple and also had a temple dedicated to Lord Vishnu. The carvings of Hindu deities are found on two of the entrance gates along with lotus flower motifs and geometric mandalas. There is damaged slab with an image of Lord Ganesha and an idol of Lord Nataraja (the dancing form of Shiva) which are remnants of the temples glorious past. The mosque was damaged by earthquakes in the 19th century. It fell into disuse.
    Bhojshala Temple Kamal Maula Mosque [image] Dhar; MP India Alauddin Khilji Originally a temple of goddess Sarasvati built by Parawara King Bhoja in circa 11th Century AD. The mosque was built using structural members of the temple. The monument also retains some slabs inscribed with Sanskrit and Prakrit literary works. Noted as a great patron of art and literature, Bhoja is said to have established a school, now known as Bhojashala. Daily worship at the Bhojshala for Hindus restricted.
    unknown Hammam Darwaza Mosque [image] Jaunpur, UP India Akbar Temple built by Diwan Lachhman das was demolished and mosque was build in 1567 AD its place. Mosque
    unknown Gachinala Mosque [image] Cumbam, Kurnool district, AP India Muhammad Salih The mosque was either built on Hindu sturctures, or made of materials derived from them. The date of construction is mentioned as 1729 A.D. Mosque
    unknown Jami Mosque [image] Ghoda , Poona District, Maharastra India Muhammad Zaman 33 temples were destroyed and the foundation of a mosque in place of them was laid. The inscription is dated 1586 A.D. when the Poona region was ruled by the Nizam Shahi sultans of Ahmadnagar. Mosque
    unknown Jami Mosque [image] Malan, Banaskantha District, Gujarat India Khan-i-Azam Ulugh Khan / Mahmud Shah I Walls and doors of this Mosque were made from idols of demolished temples. The date of construction is mentioned as 1462 A.D. Mosque
    unknown Masjid at Manvi [image] Raichur District, Karnataka India Firuz Shah Bahmani Local temple was demolished and this mosque was constructed in 1406-07 A.D. Mosque

    Conversion of synagogues[edit]

    The Great Synagogue of Oran was the largest synagogue in North Africa until it was converted into the Abdellah Ben Salem Mosque in 1975.[41]

    North Africa[edit]

    Algeria[edit]

    Europe[edit]

    France[edit]

    • Or Thora Synagogue of Marseille, built in the 1960s by Jews from Algeria, was turned into a mosque in 2016 after being bought by a conservative Muslim organization, the al-Badr organization.[42][43]

    The Netherlands[edit]

    • The Ashkenazi synagogue on Wagenstraat street of The Hague, built in 1844, became the Aqsa Mosque in 1981. The synagogue had been sold to the city by the Jewish community in 1976, on the grounds that it would not be converted into a church. In 1979 Turkish Muslim residents occupied the abandoned building and demanded it be turned into a mosque, citing alleged construction safety concerns with their usual mosque.[44] The synagogue was conceded to the Muslim community three years later.[45][46]

    Influence on Islamic architecture[edit]

    The conversion of non-Islamic religious buildings into mosques during the first centuries of Islam played a major role in the development of Islamic architectural styles. Distinct regional styles of mosque design, which have come to be known by such names as Arab, Persian, Andalusian, and others, commonly reflected the external and internal stylistic elements of churches and other temples characteristic for that region.[47]

    See also[edit]

    References[edit]

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    5. ^ Le Strange, Guy (1890). Palestine Under the Moslems. p. 10. It seems probable, also, that this latter Khalif, when he began to rebuild the Aksa, made use of the materials which lay to hand in the ruins of the great St. Mary Church of Justinian, which must originally have stood on the site, approximately, on which the Aksa Mosque was afterwards raised.
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    7. ^ a b Christys, Ann (2017). "The meaning of topography in Umayyad Cordoba". In Lester, Anne E. (ed.). Cities, Texts and Social Networks, 400–1500. Routledge. It is a commonplace of the history of Córdoba that in their early years in the city, the Muslims shared with the Christians the church of S. Vicente, until ʿAbd al-Raḥmān I bought the Christians out and used the site to build the Great Mosque. It was a pivotal moment in the history of Córdoba, which later historians may have emphasised by drawing a parallel between Córdoba and another Umayyad capital, Damascus. The first reference to the Muslims' sharing the church was by Ibn Idhārī in the fourteenth century, citing the tenth-century historian al-Rāzī. It could be a version of a similar story referring to the Great Mosque in Damascus, which may itself have been written long after the Mosque was built. It is a story that meant something in the tenth-century context, a clear statement of the Muslim appropriation of Visigothic Córdoba.
    8. ^ a b Guia, Aitana (1 July 2014). The Muslim Struggle for Civil Rights in Spain, 1985–2010: Promoting Democracy Through Islamic Engagement. Sussex Academic Press. p. 137. ISBN 978-1-84519581-6. It was originally a small temple of Christian Visigoth origin. Under Umayyad reign in Spain (711–1031 CE), it was expanded and made into a mosque, which it would remain for eight centuries. During the Christian reconquest of Al-Andalus, Christians captured the mosque and consecrated it as a Catholic church.
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    External links[edit]

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