African-American names

African-American names are an integral part of African-American tradition. While many black Americans use names that are popular with wider American culture, a number of specific naming trends have emerged within African-American culture.

History
Black slaves remained legally nameless from the time of their capture until they were purchased by American slaveholders. Economic historians Lisa D. Cook, John Parman and Trevon Logan have found that distinctive African-American naming practices happened as early as in the Antebellum period (mid-1800s). However, those early names are no longer used.

It is widely held that prior to the 1950s and 1960s, most African-American names closely resembled those used within European-American culture. Even within the European American population, a few very common names were given to babies of that era, with nicknames often used to distinguish among various people with the same name. It was also quite common for immigrants and cultural minorities to choose baby names or change their names to fit in within the wider American culture. This applied to both given names and surnames.

Paustian has argued that black names display the same themes and patterns as those in West Africa.

With the rise of the 1960s civil rights movement and the wider counterculture of the 1960s, there was a dramatic rise in African-American names of various origins. Jean Twenge believes that the shift toward unique black-American baby names is also the result of a trend in America that values individuality over conformity.

In 2004, Fryer et al. examined the rapid change in naming practices in the early 1970s, with the rapid adoption of distinctively black names, especially in low-income, racially isolated neighborhoods. They favor an explanatory model which attributes a change in black perceptions of their identity to the black power movement.

The most common and typical female slave names in America included Bet, Mary, Jane, Hanna, Betty, Sarah, Phillis, Nan, Peg, and Sary. Private names were Abah, Bilah, Comba, Dibb, Juba, Kauchee, Mima, and Sena. In French Louisiana, Slave names were different compared to English colonies in America. Louisiana’s French slave names include Francois, Jean, Pierre, and Leon for males; and Manon, Delphine, Marie Louise, Celeste, and Eugenie for females. Spanish colonies in America had Spanish names as Francisco, Pedro, and Antonio for male slaves; and for female slaves, the names were Maria, Isabella, and Juana.

Influences and conventions
Lieberson and Mikelson of Harvard University analyzed black names, finding that the recent naming practices follow American linguistic conventions even if they are independent of organizations or institutions. Given names used by African-American people are often invented or creatively-spelled variants of more traditional names. Some names are created using syllables(for example, the prefixes La- or De- and the suffixes -ique or -isha). Also, punctuation marks such as apostrophes and dashes are sometimes used, though infrequent

French names
While creoles of color historically had classical French names, many names of French origin entered the picture during the 1950s and 1960s. Opinions on the origins of the French influence vary, but historically French names such as Monique, Chantal, André, and Antoine became so common within African-American culture that many Americans began to think of them solely as "black names". These names are often seen with spelling variations such as Antwan, Antwaun or Antwon (Antoine) or Shauntelle (Chantal).

Afrocentric and inventive names


The Afrocentrism movement that grew in popularity during the 1970s saw the advent of African names among African Americans, as well as names imagined to be "African-sounding". Names such as Ashanti have African origins. The Black Power movement inspired many to show pride in their heritage. Harvard University sociologist Stanley Lieberson noted that in 1977, the name "Kizzy" rose dramatically in popularity following the use of the name in the book and television series Roots.

By the 1970's and 1980's, it had become common within African-American culture to invent new names. Many of the invented names took elements from popular existing names. Prefixes such as La/Le, Da/De, Ra/Re, or Ja/Je and suffixes such as -ique/iqua, -isha (for girls), -ari and -aun/awn (for boys) are common, as well as inventive spellings for common names. The book Baby Names Now: From Classic to Cool—The Very Last Word on First Names places the origins of "La" names in African-American culture in New Orleans. The name LaKeisha is typically considered American in origin but has elements drawn from both African and French roots.

Apostrophes are seen more often within African-American names than other American names, such as the names Mo'nique and D'Andre.

In his dictionary of black names, Cenoura asserts that in the early 21st century, black names are "unique names that come from combinations of two or more names, names constructed with common prefixes and suffixes...'conjugated' with a formula..." "Da", "La", and related sounds may originate from the French spoken in Louisiana. Attached to a common name such as Seán and spelled phonetically, one obtains "DaShawn". Diminutive suffixes from French, Spanish and Scottish such as "ita" may be combined directly with prefixes or to a name, as is often found in other naming or nicknaming. Conventions followed usually make the person's gender easily identifiable. Following Spanish, masculine names often end in "o", e.g. "Carmello", while feminine names end with "a", e.g. "Jeretta". Following Irish and Italian, apostrophes may be used, e.g. "D'Andre" and "Rene'e". Parents' names may be blended, e.g. the son of "Raymond" and "Yvonne" might be named "Rayvon".

Rather uncommonly or unconventionally, some non-African Americans have given names that are usually perceived or seen as typically carried by blacks. An example of a European-American with an explicitly Afrocentric name is Miss Michigan USA 2014 winner and a Miss USA 2015 delegate, Rashontae Wawrzyniak.

Muslim names


Islam has been an influence upon African-American names. Islamic names entered African-American culture with the rise of the Nation of Islam among black Americans with its focus upon black supremacy and separatism. The popular names Aisha, Aaliyah, and others are also examples of names derived from Islam.

A number of African-American celebrities began adopting Muslim names (frequently following a religious conversion to Islam), including Muhammad Ali, who changed his name in 1964 from Cassius Marcellus Clay, Jr. Other celebrities adopting Muslim names include Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (formerly Lew Alcindor) and Amiri Baraka (formerly LeRoi Jones). Despite the Muslim origin of these names and the place of the Nation of Islam in the Civil Rights Movement, many Muslim names such as Jamal and Malik entered popular usage among black Americans simply because they were fashionable, and many Islamic names are now commonly used by African Americans regardless of religion. Also, there have been a few non-black, non-Muslim Americans who bear those names.

Ethnic African words and names
Some Black Americans gave and still give their children Ethnic African names or names of African concepts. Some celebrities like Nas, named Olu Dara, have an ethnic Yoruba name, an ethnicity in West Africa. Singer Ashanti was named after the Ashanti/asante empire and people of Ghana.

Some Black Americans also changed their birth names to those which they felt matched their African identity, Like Ntozake shange. Born Paulette Williams, Shange asked South African musicians Ndikho and Nomusa Xaba to give her African names and she was given Ntozake Shange from Zulu and Xhosa language. Shange's sister Ifa Bayeza also changed her name to that later in life, Ifa being a Yoruba word and concept. Obba Babatunde, an actor who name is from the Yoruba Culture changed his name to that later in life. Oba, which means king in Yoruba, spelled with two bs in his name and Babatunde, a Yoruba name meaning Father has returned, a belief in reincarnation and used to honour a deceased father or male ancestor of the parents.

Also Afeni Shakur In 1968, at 21, she changed her name to Afeni Shakur; Afeni is a Yoruba word for "lover of people,". These names were based on pride in African Ancestry, not necessarily individual claims of being from the particular ethnic groups the names were taken from. Black Americans are mixed with several African ethnicities and the naming conventions were out of inspirational or popular or well known African ethnic groups they could get information about or felt connected to. Also Sade, or Shade also spelled Sharday or Shardae in the west is an African name which has grown in popularity among Black American names. It is a Yoruba name, popularized by the singer Sade Adu.

European and Biblical names
Even with the rise of created names, it is also still common for African Americans to use biblical, historic, or European names. Daniel, Christopher, Michael, David, James, Joseph, and Matthew were among the most common names for African-American boys in 2013.

Workplace discrimination
In recent years, some evidence points to workplace discrimination on the basis of names. A study in the early 2020s concluded that applicants with traditionally black names have 2.1% less chance of getting a call back after an interview. Studies done at the University of Chicago and the University of California Berkeley, in which over 83,000 entry-level job applications were submitted, showed that 7% of all jobs in the experiment were against traditionally black names. This research asserts that candidates with black names were less likely to get a call back.