Akai Kutsu

"Red Shoes" (赤い靴) is a well-known Japanese children's poem written in 1922 by poet Ujō Noguchi. It is also famous as a Japanese folk song for children, with music composed by Nagayo Motoori. The poem narrates the story of a girl who is adopted by foreigners and taken to the United States.

Lyrics
Evidence suggests that in the original manuscript of Akai Kutsu, the line read "Every time I see red shoes, I remember her," but it was later changed to "think of."

Originally unreleased, a fifth stanza was discovered in notes released in 1978.

Established origin theory
The established theory is that the lyrics of Akai Kutsu were inspired by a true story. It is believed that Iwasaki Kimi (July 15, 1902 - September 15, 1911), a young girl from Fushimi, Shizuoka Prefecture, served as the model for the girl wearing red shoes in the poem.

Kimi's mother, Kayo Iwasaki, initially raised her as a single mother but eventually moved to Hokkaido and married Shirou Suzuki. When Kimi was three years old, her parents joined a communal farm in Hokkaido associated with the Socialist movement. Due to the harsh farming conditions, Kayo, with the help of her father-in-law, Sano Yasuyoshi, entrusted Kimi's upbringing to a pair of American missionaries named Hewitt.

The Hewitts eventually decided to return to America, but Kimi contracted tuberculosis, which was incurable at the time, preventing them from taking her with them. They entrusted her to an orphanage at Toriikazu Church in Azabu, Tokyo, and returned to America without her. Kimi died at the orphanage at the age of nine, never reuniting with her mother. Kayo, unaware of Kimi's fate, spent her life believing that Kimi had gone to America with the Hewitts, not knowing that she had died of tuberculosis in Tokyo.

In 1907, Ujō Noguchi, a socialist poet since 1903, became close to his coworker Suzuki Shirou and his wife Kayo while working at a newspaper in Sapporo. During this time, he heard Kayo's account of how Kimi had been taken to America by missionaries. Unbeknownst to Kayo, Kimi was actually in an orphanage in Tokyo. Discouraged by the farming lifestyle, the Suzukis had confided their story to Noguchi. Inspired by this tale, Noguchi wrote Akai Kutsu in 1921, and it became a nursery rhyme in 1922 with music composed by Nagayo Motoori.

In 1973, Kimi's half-sister, Sono (Shirou and Kayo's third daughter), wrote to a newspaper claiming, "My sister is the girl from Akai Kutsu." This prompted Hiroshi Kikuchi, a reporter for Hokkaido Television Broadcasting, to investigate the story. After five years of research, Kikuchi confirmed the account. In 1978, a documentary titled Document: The Girl in the Red Shoes aired on HKB, followed by Kikuchi's non-fiction book The Girl in The Red Shoes. This book's narrative became the widely accepted theory on the matter.

Arguments against the established theory
The idea that the established theory is partially based on fabrications was advocated by the author Shousuke Ai. When the Mother and Child Statue was erected in Nihondaira, Shizuoka, in 1986, Ai was asked to write a script for a commemorative special by the local TV station SBS, titled The Wandering Poem: The Girl in the Red Shoes. However, Ai had doubts about the accuracy of the established theory presented in Kikuchi's book and the documentary Document: The Girl in the Red Shoes. He decided to investigate the contradictions in the theory. In his book Hoax: The Unworn Red Shoes, Ai clarified his position that the established theory lacked a factual basis.

Shousuke Ai's theory presents several challenges to the established narrative:
 * 1) The assertion in Kikuchi's book that Sano was Kimi's biological father lacks evidence. It is more plausible that Kimi being listed as Sano's adopted daughter in the family register was a measure to place an illegitimate child in her grandfather's family register.
 * 2) While the missionaries' surname "Hewitt" is accurate, the claim that they had contact with Kimi is unfounded. The story that Kimi was entrusted to the missionary couple was likely a fabrication by Sano to comfort Kayo. In reality, Sano placed Kimi directly into an orphanage in Tokyo, where she remained. During this period, the Hewitts were in Hokkaido and could not have adopted Kimi
 * 3) Kikuchi's book suggests that Ujō Noguchi turned Kayo's story of Kimi's adoption into a poem. However, Kayo likely had few opportunities to meet and converse with the Noguchis, and it is improbable she would have discussed her illegitimate child. The relationship between the Noguchis and Suzukis probably did not extend beyond professional and political discussions.
 * 4) Ujō Noguchi's Akai Kutsu should be interpreted as a metaphor for the disillusionment with the Utopian Socialist movement, rather than a literal recounting of Kimi's story.

Ai argues that Kikuchi supplemented gaps in his research with imaginative details, while Kikuchi maintains that there are no errors in the foundation of his theory.

Ai insists, based on Noguchi Nobuya's (Ujō's son) research, that "Ujō's nursery rhymes, of which "Akai Kutsu" is included, are not about any particular person." Conversely, Kukichi argues that Akai Kutsu and some of Ujō's other works do refer to particular individuals. The two also differ in their interpretation of Shabondama, where the line "So soon after it was born, it broke and was no more" may express Ujō's grief over the premature death of his eldest daughter.

The two parties agree that Kayo sincerely believed Kimi had been adopted by missionaries and taken to America. However, they diverge on whether these missionaries were the actual Hewitts (as per Kikuchi's theory) or mere fabrications devised by Sano (as per Ai's theory). Ai asserts that "Kikuchi is damaging the good name of the Hewitts, who never even met Kimi, with his fictional story that he created for a TV program."

Furthermore, Ai endeavors to support his theory that Ujō's Akai Kutsu does not pertain to Kimi, while simultaneously critiquing the notion that Ujō crafted the poem after learning from Kayo about Kimi's adoption, labeling it as "a further embellishment stemming from Kayo's misguided assumption, propagated by Kikuchi and Sono." However, it remains a fact that Kayo relayed to Sono that "Ujō-san wrote a poem about Kimi." Consequently, dismissing Kayo's interpretation is untenable. Given the contentious nature of the theories surrounding Ujō, Kayo's perspective, and the credibility of Kikuchi's data collection methodology, a consensus has yet to be reached.

To counter Kikuchi's book and Sono's assertion that "Kayo spoke to the Noguchi's about Kimi," Ai is conducting an exhaustive inquiry into his own hypothesis that "Kayo didn't have many opportunities to talk to the Noguchi's and wasn't close enough with them to speak of such things." However, as both sides do not dispute the potential for the Suzukis to have informed Ujō about Kimi or for Ujō to have conducted research on the Suzuki family, an investigation into whether Ujō could have been aware of Kimi would be inconclusive.

On August 21, 2009, the statue Kimi-chan was erected in Hakodate, Hokkaido, based on the established theory. However, a newspaper article discussing the statue's installation highlighted the existence of multiple interpretations of Akai Kutsu. Mainichi Shimbun reported that "There are indications that it was written about the setbacks of the Utopian Socialist movement that was based around Shūsui Kōtoku who had led the development of peasant farming, and relatives of Noguchi assert that 'there was no real-life model (for the girl in the song).'"

Currently, the debate regarding the potential influence of the Noguchi family's relationship with the Suzukis, who were involved in the peasant farming movement, on Ujō's poems (including Akai Kutsu), has reached an impasse with no significant progress.

Furthermore, there is a divergence of opinions among Ujō's relatives regarding whether his nursery rhymes are inspired by specific individuals. Ujō's granddaughter, Fujiko, representing the Ujō Noguchi Memorial Hall, asserted in a speech that Shabondama reflects his grief over the untimely passing of his daughter. However, there is a discrepancy between Nobuya and Fujiko regarding their stance on the official theory; while Nobuya consistently opposes it, Fujiko delivered a commemorative speech during the unveiling of the Kimi-chan statue.

However, Nobuya also posits that Mokichi Noguchi (Ujō's younger cousin), a staunch adherent of Sen Katayama's socialist ideology, exerted significant influence on Ujō's early poems, particularly those that were not nursery rhymes.

In her recent work A Poet of Nostalgia and a Childlike Heart: The Ujō Noguchi Story, Fujiko Noguchi writes that it's plausible to interpret the fourth stanza in Akai Kutsu as referring to Mokichi (who emigrated to America from Yokohama in 1905 and passed away in Los Angeles in 1954). Regarding the established theory, she suggests that while there is no direct evidence, it's reasonable to assume that some personal experience of Ujō's served as inspiration for Akai Kutsu. Fujiko does not address Ai's theory in the book.

Other debates
Even before the publication of Hoax: The Unworn Red Shoes, varying interpretations of this nursery rhyme were already a topic of discussion. In 2003, on NHK Educational TV's educational program A Course About Humans, as part of a series titled Why Do People Sing?, Rokusuke Ei mentioned that he had heard from Fujiko Noguchi that "The 'Aka' (red) in 'Akai Kutsu ' ('Red Shoes') refers to the Soviet Union, and Ujō was expressing 'where has the Soviet Union and Socialism gone?' However, to circumvent potential censorship under the Peace Preservation Law, he employed metaphorical language."

In an article in the June 17, 2003 issue of Weekly Shinchou, Fujiko Noguchi contested this assertion, stating, "I never spoke to Ei about Ujō's nursery rhymes." This disagreement has caused a division between her and Ei, who maintains that he heard the information from her. Additionally, the article included remarks from Hiroshi Eguchi, who pointed out Ei's misunderstanding by noting that "the Peace Preservation Law wasn't established until years after the release of Akai Kutsu." Composer Koichi Sugiyama also criticized Ei, suggesting that "He is misinterpreting Ujō's masterpiece as something anti-Japanese."

In the same article, former chairman of the Ujō Council and Ujō researcher Masako Saijou cited the established theory that Ujō derived the poem from a story he heard from Suzuki Shirou. She also cast doubt on Ei's interpretation of the color red as symbolic of the Soviet Union.

In the conclusion, the reporter cites Ujō's statement that "it is not acceptable to critique a nursery rhyme's lyrics using logic," to dismiss Rokosuke Ei's attempt to assert that "no matter the author's feelings, a song is something that is influenced by the ideas of those that come after."

The article omits any reference to Ujō's publication as a Socialist poet or Shirou Suzuki's involvement in peasant farming. Additionally, it does not delve into the ongoing debate regarding whether Ujō's shift in literary style later in life stemmed from a genuine change in his beliefs regarding Socialism or if it was merely a superficial alteration while maintaining his Socialist principles.

In December 2009, guest Tomoko Matsushima presented the established theory on TBS Radio's "Saturday Wide Radio Tokyo: Rokosuke Ei and the New World" (土曜ワイドラジオTOKYO 永六輔その新世界) program.

Statues
In 1979, Yamashita Park in Yokohama saw the erection of the statue "The Girl in the Red Shoes." This statue, reflecting the innocent imagery of Ujō's poem, was a gift from the Council of Citizens who Love Akai Kutsu, later renamed the Akai Kutsu Commemoration Cultural Foundation. In 1982, the Council donated a miniature version of the statue to Yokohama Station. Initially, the statue was located at the south entrance, but in December 2010, it was relocated to a more accessible location for free passage.

In 2009, a replica of the statue from Yamashita Park was erected in Yokohama's sister city of San Diego, California, near the beach. The replica was unveiled on June 27th.

The following six statues were erected based on the established theory:
 * Shizuoka Prefecture, Nihondaira - "Mother and Daughter Statue" (1986)
 * Tokyo, Azabu-Jūban - "Statue of Kimi-chan" (1989)
 * Hokkaido, Rusutsu - "Mother's Feelings" (1991)
 * Hokkaido, Otaru - "Akai Kutsu: Parents and Child Statue" (2007)
 * Hokkaido, Hakodate - "Statue of Kimi-chan" (2009)
 * Aomori Prefecture, Ajigasawa - "Akai Kutsu Statue" (2010)

On September 4, 2012, during NHK Radio 2's program "Basic English 3," guest Dario Toda mentioned that a statue is in the process of being sculpted, with his sister serving as the model.

In popular culture
The term "foreigner" (いじんさん) in the song was commonly used during the Bakumatsu and Meiji periods to denote someone from a foreign country (外国人), particularly Westerners, as indicated by the "blue-eyed" reference. Notably, the lyrics do not mention terms like "great man" (偉人さん), "Mr. Carrot" (にんじんさん), "good uncle" (いい爺さん), or "great grandfather" (曾爺). Manga artist Momoko Sakura, hailing from Shimizu, drew inspiration from this notion when creating the shōjo manga "Chibi Maruko-chan."

In the popular Japanese anime "Ghost in the Shell," a rendition of Akai Kutsu is sung by the Tachikoma in Season 1, Episode 16. The lyrics include: "Pretty little girl, red shoes she wore. Now I understand. She and her red shoes taken far away by a foreign man."

Even before his book The Wandering Poem: The Girl in the Red Shoes, Shousuke Ai wrote a television script based on Akai Kutsu under his real name, Bunbei Ai. The 45th episode of Ultraman Taro, titled "From A Japanese Nursery Rhyme: Wearing Red Shoes..." (1974), portrays a young girl who was abducted by aliens in her childhood and transformed into a monster to aid in the invasion of Earth, and her childhood friend who serves in the Self-Defense Forces. In the 349th episode of Tokusō Saizensen (特捜最前線), titled "The Woman from Greece!" (1984), the story revolves around the interactions between Katsuhiko Yokomitsu, a detective on a special mission in disguise, and a young girl. In one scene, Yokomitsu sings Akai Kutsu. The Akai Kutsu Committee (later renamed the Japan Akai Kutsu Committee), established to challenge the established theory, has Ai as chairman and Yokomitsu as an honorary adviser, although Yokomitsu's involvement is more aligned with his role as a "former actor turned politician."

The movie Superior Ultraman 8 Brothers (2008) was created in commemoration of the 150th anniversary of the opening of the Port of Yokohama. The statue in Yamashita Park makes an appearance in the film. The character known as the "Akai Kutsu Girl," initially appearing as a regular human, portrays a figure transcending time and space, guiding Ultraman. However, her true nature remains ambiguous.

In the 2007 drama Gluttonous Detectives 2, specifically in the episode titled "Devour the Slightly Hard Soft Thing!" (プヨプヨちょっとカタ～いを食い荒らす！), the storyline portrays the experiences of a man separated from his Japanese mother and raised abroad, echoing themes present in the song. The episode was filmed in Yamashita Park.

During the Yokohama Carnival held in summer, a significant dance event called the Hamakoi Odori, derived from Yosakoi, is featured. One stipulation of this dance is the inclusion of the nursery

rhyme Akai Kutsu among the musical selections.