Cayuga language

Cayuga (Gayogo̱hó꞉nǫˀ) is a Northern Iroquoian language of the Iroquois Proper (also known as "Five Nations Iroquois") subfamily, and is spoken on Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation, Ontario, by around 240 Cayuga people, and on the Cattaraugus Reservation, New York, by fewer than 10.

Cayuga is critically endangered, with only 115 people of the Indigenous population reporting Cayuga as their mother tongue in the 2021 Canadian census. The Cayuga people are working to revitalize the language. As an example of such, Six Nations Polytechnic has developed apps on IOS and study programs in Cayuga, Oneida, Mohawk and others.

Dialects
There are at least two distinct dialects of Cayuga. Two are spoken at Six Nations of the Grand River in southern Ontario. Another, called "Seneca-Cayuga", was spoken in Oklahoma until its extinction in the 1980s.

The two dialects of the Cayuga at Six Nations are often associated with the two Cayuga longhouses, Sour Springs or “Upper” Cayuga and “Lower” Cayuga. Differences between these two dialects of southern Ontario are known to include two phonological patterns. In the Lower Cayuga (LC) variety, underlying *tj sequences surface as /ky/, e.g. LC gyę:gwa’ /kjɛ̃ːkwaʔ/ vs (UC) ję:gwa’ /tjɛ̃ːkwaʔ/. Another apparent difference involves the metrical pattern of Laryngeal Spreading. In Lower Cayuga words, odd-numbered vowels preceding /h/ or /ʔ/ are pronounced with the voice quality of the following consonant. That is to say, such vowels are pronounced with whispered vowels when preceding /h/ or creaky voice before /ʔ/. An example of this occurs in the word for ‘nine,’ gyoHdo̜h [kjo̤htõh].

Modern dialects
There are two varieties of Cayuga. The Lower Cayuga dialect is spoken by those of the Lower End of the Six Nations and the Upper Cayuga are from the Upper End. The main difference between the two is that the Lower Cayuga use the sound and the Upper use the sound. Also, pronunciation differs between individual speakers of Cayuga and their preferences.

Vowels
There are five oral vowels in Cayuga, as well as four long vowels,, , , and. Cayuga also has three nasalized vowels,, , and. Both and  are rare sounds in Cayuga. The latter is not phonemic, but surfaces due to a phonological pattern of nasalization, where underlying /a/ becomes when following a nasal vowel. Sometimes, the sounds and  are used interchangeably according to the speaker's preference. After long and, an  sound can be heard, especially when before , , , , , and.

Vowels can be devoiced as allophonically, indicated in the orthography used at Six Nations by underlining them.

/ɑ̃/ occurs in only a few words. /ɛ̃/ may be pronounced [ʌ̃], and /õ/ may be [ũ].

Long vowels
Length is important because it alone can distinguish two completely different meanings from one another. For example:

[haʔseʔ] you are going

[haʔseː] you went

Devoiced vowels
Following are some words that demonstrate what some vowels sound like when they occur before [h]. In words like, , , and , and  devoiced as , sound like a whispered , and  and  devoiced as , sound like a whispered. Furthermore, the in  and  is nasalized because of   and. The consonant before the nasalized vowel becomes voiceless. Also, odd-numbered vowels followed by are devoiced, while even-numbered vowels followed by  are not.

Consonants
Like other Iroquoian languages, Cayuga has a very small consonant inventory.

Allophonic variations that occur in Cayuga:
 * becomes voiced before sonorants. The sound [d] does not exist word-finally.
 * becomes voiced before sonorants.
 * becomes before,  or.
 * becomes when preceding front vowels  and, and as  before sonorants. It can also be heard as  and  freely before  and , respectively. Speakers may use  and  interchangeably according to the speaker's preference.
 * can be voiceless as (sounds like  or ).
 * can also be voiceless (sounds like ).
 * "A vowel devoices if the vowel and a following are in an odd-numbered syllable." For example: the  in
 * The vowel is voiced when it and a following are in an even-numbered syllable and in "absolute word-initial position or in word-final position, or preceded by another ." For example:  tell her;  she writes
 * The vowel is voiced when it and a following are in an even-numbered syllable and in "absolute word-initial position or in word-final position, or preceded by another ." For example:  tell her;  she writes

Accent
Most words have accented vowels, resulting in a higher pitch. Where the stress is placed is dependent on the "position of the word in the phrase." The default location for stress for nouns is on final vowel. "In words that are at the end of a phrase, accent falls on the 2nd last vowel, the 3rd last vowel, or occasionally, on the 4th vowel from the end of the word." For example:


 * 'I just heard it'
 * 'I just heard it'

These sounds are long, especially in an even-numbered position. When nouns and verbs are not at the end of a phrase, accent is placed on the final vowel. For example:


 * 'I heard it, I didn't see it'
 * 'I heard it, I didn't see it'

Morphosyntax
Cayuga is a polysynthetic language. As with other Iroquoian languages, the verbal template contains an optional prepronominal prefix, a pronominal prefix (indicating agreement), an optional incorporated noun, a verbal root, and an aspectual suffix. The nominal template consists of an agreement prefix (usually neuter for non-possessed nouns), the nominal root, and a suffix.