Chinese ideals of female beauty

Female Chinese beauty standards have become a well-known feature of Chinese culture. A 2018 survey conducted by the Great British Academy of Aesthetic Medicine concluded that Chinese beauty culture prioritizes an oval face shape, pointed, narrow chin, plump lips, well defined Cupid's bows, and obtuse jaw angle. The importance of feminine beauty in China has been deeply ingrained into the culture: historically, a woman's livelihood was often determined by her ability to find an eligible husband, a feat aided by fitting into the cultural ideals of beauty.

Black hair that is long, thick and shiny is seen as particularly beautiful among Chinese women. Similarly, pale, ivory skin, and a slim body figure have historical implications as being a physical representation of wealth and affluence. More recently, however, tan skin has emerged as the preferred beauty ideal among some younger Chinese women, who view their tan skin as healthier and more attractive than pale skin.

A relatively new ideal ingrained into Chinese culture consists of the notion of having a double eyelid. The term double eyelid refers to the prominent crease natural to approximately 66.7% and 83.1% of Chinese women. For the minority that does not naturally have them, this look can be achieved temporarily by using specific cosmetic products such as tape or glue. A permanent option is to undergo a procedure titled blepharoplasty, which utilizes cosmetic surgery to reshape the eyelid.

History
The emphasis that both Taoist and Confucian notions of female beauty place on the relationship between inner and outer beauty has influenced the creation of the Chinese female beauty ideal. To further see the history of this culture, as well as how these ideals came into place see Chinese Culture. Outer beauty was thought to represent virtuousness, talent, and other positive characteristics.

In Taoist thought, women with masculine voices make poor sexual partners, because this trait suggests an excess of qi that inhibits the attainment of sexual harmony. In her article "Female Bodily Aesthetics, Politics, and Feminine Ideals of Beauty," Eva Kit Wah Man articulates how Confucianism and Taoism played essential roles in the creation of Chinese beauty ideals: "In the Chinese tradition, as in other cultures, both the external sexual and inner moral dimensions determine the beauty of a woman…The notion of female beauty comes from both (Taoism and Confucianism)." "Femininity" does not refer to an aspect of a dichotomy between mind and body, as there is no such dichotomy in Chinese philosophy. Women in China also expands on these ideals, delving into the impact women have in Chinese society. Thus, historically, the religious influences on Chinese beauty ideals closely tied outer beauty to inner beauty. Historically, an oval face, willow leaf eyebrows, long thin eyes, small lips, and a slim, fragile-looking body were preferred during the Tang dynasty.

Modern Chinese society is highly influenced by Western capitalist and Marxist thoughts. The Chinese would not describe themselves as a completely capitalist country, nor a purely Marxist country. They fundamentally ignore this type of question about the essence of its political position, and develop their economy, politics, culture and feminism in their own way. They call themselves a socialist market economy with Chinese characteristics. The rise of Chinese feminist development is highly influenced by the claims of the "new " China (since the early 19th century) and its government that it would save the Chinese woman from the "old society" and set women's minds free (Chun, 2008). An article published in the widely circulated journal Dushu uses an earlier nativist satire to argue that women themselves voluntarily desired the beauty of small feet (footbinding) into the first decades of the twentieth century, despite the elite, male-dominated discourse of liberation and equality that assailed the practice, claiming, "during the long historical period when foot binding became common women's way of life, foot binding was just considered the most natural physical behavior for girls. Foot binding was as common as eating and dressing. Foot binding was also a way for women to seek physical beauty."

Beauty ideals in Chinese culture
In Chinese culture, there is a significant emphasis placed on the appearance and physical allure of women, which is apparent in both business and social settings. John Osburg, Director of Anthropology at the University of Rochester in his book, Anxious Wealth, explores the gender relations in Post Mao China, documenting the well-known disparity that exists between men and women. A theme of his work is that the objectification of women as a commonplace in Chinese culture creates the gender inequalities that are still prevalent today.

"The vast majority of entrepreneurs in post-Mao China are men. This is largely due to the fact that business networking requires entering spaces (such as nightclubs and saunas) and participating in activities (drinking, gambling, and sex consumption) that are not viewed as appropriate for "proper" women....these networks constitute a key component of business...the bulk of the relationships of these networks are forged and maintained through ritualized leisure-experiences of shared pleasures catering to the desires and enjoyments of elite men, including karaoke clubs, saunas, nightclubs, high-end restaurants, and teahouses.

As Osburg details, karaoke clubs, saunas, nightclubs, etc. are meant to attract the businessmen, as there are also multiple red light districts around these areas. Prostitution in China further expands on these areas and this culture. In many cases, relationships between employees, co-workers, partners, etc. are forged through these settings. Based on these traditional practices, it can be stated that it is of utmost importance then for the women to be aesthetically pleasing, further highlighting women's attempt to capture beauty, or at least capture the way it is perceived by Chinese Culture.

Hair
On a woman, long, shining black hair is regarded as exceptionally beautiful, particularly when its growth is strong and luxuriant.

Double eyelid
Double eyelids are unconditionally considered beautiful in East Asian society. The double eyelid is a crease in the small flap of skin that covers the eye. It has been estimated that 17–32% of Chinese women lack this upper eyelid crease, giving them a monolid appearance. However, this is not ideal when it comes to Chinese beauty. A study looked at which type of eyelid was considered most attractive on Chinese women. Edited photographs of young Chinese women's eyes were presented to the test participants. It found that there was significant preference for the double eyelid while the single eyelid was considered to be the least attractive. Because of this, many Chinese women go through a surgery that creates a fold in the upper eyelid giving them the double eyelid. This procedure, called blepharoplasty, typically costs around $3,000. During this 30 minute surgery, doctors cut, fold, and stitch the upper eyelids, creating a small crease above the eyelids. This operation makes the eye appear larger and more round, giving the woman a more desirable look.

Skin tone
In ancient times, skin tone was known to indicate social class. Women of wealthy backgrounds did not have to perform agricultural work, and thus did not acquire a dark complexion. Thus a lighter skin became associated with power, social status, and wealth. Due to this perception, there has been social pressure in Chinese cultures to avoid direct sunlight in the outdoors.

More recently, however, tan skin has emerged as the new female beauty ideal among younger women, who view their tan skin as healthier and more attractive than pale skin. According to Tai Wei Lim, Chinese women in media now sport bronze complexions, and this is viewed as a reclamation of women's autonomy within China.

Body shape
In the Spring and Autumn period (722–481 BC), Emperor Chu desired a slim waist; women in his harem often starved themselves to death in order to capture his attention. Historic trends of women developing anorexia nervosa, an eating disorder, to fit trends of beauty represents systemic psychology still influence today's culture surrounding body image. Chinese figures such as Zhao Feiyan were renowned for their small waists and continue to be glorified to this day. Similar to the aforementioned feet binding, waist binding was common practice; men were attracted to women who swayed when they walked due to improper hip growth. In the later Tang dynasty, fuller figures were more popular due to associations with good fortune and wealth. The Chinese idiom huanfei yanshou (環肥燕瘦, literally "plump Huan, slender Fei") is used to refer to the range of types of beauties. Yang Yuhuan, the "plump Huan", is estimated by unofficial records to have been 1.65 meters tall and weighed 69 kilograms.

Modern Chinese people have long considered the ideal woman's body to be relatively tall, slim, and curvaceous. Fascination towards height has continued to increase as evidenced by Chinese beauty pageant winners, but this could correlate more to global pageant standards rather than cultural ideals. Values of fragility in Chinese culture have proven to be relatively prevalent and stable.