Deccani–Vijayanagar wars

The Deccani–Vijayanagar wars were a series of wars between 1495 to 1678 that pitted the rival powers of the Deccan Sultanates against the Vijayanagar Empire. Over the course of approximately 120 years, these two entities engaged in a series of wars and skirmishes that were marked by significant displays of military strength and strategic maneuvering.

The conflict commenced as a result of the conquest of the Raichur Doab by Yusuf Adil Shah, who established the Adil Shahi's, Bijapur Sultanate, Golconda Sultanate, Ahmednagar Sultanate and Bidar Sultanate in the Deccan. The successful conquest of the Raichur Doab in 1510 A.D. initiated a series of military confrontations between the two kingdoms, ultimately resulting in the depletion of resources and finances for both entities.

Most of these military skirmishes predominantly occurred in Karnataka, which had been a longstanding hotspot of conflicts between the Deccan Sultanates and the Vijayanagara Empire for centuries.This series of wars encompassed numerous skirmishes between the two powers in South Asia, including the Battle of Raichur and the Battle of Talikota, where both sides experienced gains and losses of significant resources; the Vijayanagara Empire and the Deccan Sultanates suffered corresponding setbacks and advancements. The significant event of the Vijayanagara Empire's demise at the hands of the Madurai Nayaks in 1614 occurred approximately 50 years after the Battle of Talikota, ultimately leading to the complete downfall of the Vijayanagara Empire and the establishment of new, smaller kingdoms in the south. From the Battle of Talikota to the eventual decline of the Vijayanagara Empire, the Deccan sultanates maintained control over the Tungabhadra region along the Krishna River and the Raichur Doab, while neighboring sultanates also held significant influence in the southern region.

Background
The Vijayanagara Empire was founded in 1335 CE by two brothers, Harihara I and Bukka Raya I in the southern region of India. It faced numerous conflicts with the Deccan Sultanates (also known as the Bahamani Sultanate) and the Gajapati Kingdom of Orissa. Despite these challenges, the empire managed to extend its rule over the southern region until 1614 AD.

The Tuluva Dynasty was founded by Tuluva Narasa Nayaka in 1491 after the assassination of Narasimha Raya II. The conflicts escalated during his reign when Yusuf Adil Shah established the Bijapur Sultanate in the Deccan in 1490 AD. This led to an ongoing struggle for power and control in the region.Numerous battles were waged between the Adil Shahi and Vijayanagara, with the Battle of Raichur and the Battle of Talikota being the most significant. Despite being fierce rivals, these two powers occasionally formed alliances against neighboring kingdoms. Both states were subjected to multiple attacks by neighboring forces but managed to maintain a strong position within their respective kingdoms.

After all these events, a new sultanate emerged in the Deccan region during this time. It was the Quli Qutb Shah who established the new Golconda Sultanate following the decline of the Bahamani Sultanate. This sultanate also played a significant role in the decline of the Vijayanagara Empire.

Following the decline of the Bahamani Sultanate, the Ahmednagar Sultanate emerged as a separate entity. It played a significant role in conflicts and engagements with the Qutb Shahi, Adil Shahi, and Vijayanagara. The rulers of Ahmednagar were known as Nizam Shahs, with Hussain Nizam Shah I being a prominent military leader in the Battle of Talikota.

The conflict arose when Yusuf Adil Shah ascended to the throne and had to confront the invasion by Narasimha Raya II.

Adil Shahi-Vijayanagara conflicts
The series of conflicts between the Adil Shahi dynasty of Bijapur Sultanate and the Vijayanagara empire began during the early reign of Yusuf Adil Shah, who ascended the throne of the Bijapur Sultanate in 1490 A.D. These skirmishes continued for a long time during the Medieval period.

At the time of Narasimha's coronation, the Bahmani Sultanate had disintegrated, leading to the rise of successor kingdoms. Among them, the Adil Shahis of Bijapur, which shared a long border with Vijayanagara, emerged as a formidable force. Qasim Barid, the Barid Shahi ruler in Bidar, who had a precarious grip on power, sought Narasimha's support in thwarting the growing influence of the Adil Shahis. The five successor kingdoms of the Bahmani Sultanate were primarily engaged in internal conflicts to prevent the dominance of any single kingdom or dynasty.

The forces of Vijayanagara advanced as far as Mudgal and Raichur, conquering and adding territories in the Doab to their expanding empire, while devastating much of the surrounding countryside.

Yusuf Adil Shah mustered a formidable force of seven thousand horsemen, a substantial infantry contingent, and three hundred elephants to confront him. When Yusuf Adil Shah launched a fierce attack on this army, Timraj, unable to withstand the onslaught, fled the battlefield, abandoning two hundred elephants and a thousand horses to the victorious forces. Additionally,Yusuf Adil Shah's troops captured sixty lakh hoons, along with numerous jewels and other valuable spoils. Timraj and the young Narasimha Raya II fled to Vijayanagara, but the Thimma Bhupala succumbed to his wounds sustained in the battle en route.

Death of Thimma Bhupala
Thimma Bhupala, the ruler of the Saluva Dynasty, undertook various punitive expeditions throughout the southern region. He also initiated an aggressive campaign against Yusuf Adil Shah, but was ultimately defeated by Yusuf Adil Shah's forces. During the conflict, Thimma Bhupala sustained severe injuries, as did his officer Timraj. Despite launching assaults on Raichur and Mudgal, Thimma Bhupala faced defeat at the hands of Yusuf Adil Shah. Tragically, Thimma Bhupala succumbed to the wounds he received in battle shortly after his return to Vijayanagara. "Yoosoof Adil Khan attacked with such force that Timraj, unable to withstand the assault, fled, leaving behind two hundred elephants, a thousand horses, sixty lacks of hoons, and numerous jewels and valuable plunder in the hands of the victors. Timraj and the young Ray fled to Beejanuggur. The Ray died from injuries sustained in the battle, while Timraj seized control of the country. However, opposition from some of the nobility led to internal strife, granting Yoosoof Adil Khan a temporary break from war in that region. Dustoor Khan recounted that the victory was achieved through a cunning plan: Yoosoof Adil Khan, capitalizing on the disorder among his own troops, sent a messenger to Timraj, offering peace and acknowledging Timraj's authority over the country he held. When Timraj and the Ray arrived with their followers for a conference, Yoosoof Adil Khan ambushed them with his entire army, resulting in the death of seventy high-ranking individuals and the dispersal of their troops, leaving them to be looted by the victors. Following this success, Yoosoof Adil Khan rewarded Raab Jung Bahadur Khan with fifty elephants and one lack of hoons, and dispatched him to capture the forts of Moodkul and Rachore. After successfully achieving this within forty days, the King returned to his capital of Beejapoor. This victory significantly increased his wealth, solidified his power, and affirmed his authority. It is said that he paid Mahmood Shah the compliment by sending him two splendid vests adorned with precious stones, two horses with gold shoes, and saddles and bridles set with jewels, along with an official report of his triumph.."

According to John Briggs' translation of Ferishta's work, Thimma Bhupala's death was attributed to wounds sustained in his battle with Yusuf Adil Shah.

Amidst internal conflict and division among the two primary figures in the Vijayanagara kingdom, the Adil Shahi Sultan of Bijapur seized the opportunity to capture Raichur and most of the Doab. The immediate actions of Adil Shah following Narasimha Raya II's death could be interpreted as the outset of the First Adil Shahi War. The loss of Raichur and the Doab prompted the opposing factions in Vijayanagara to unite and confront the Adil Because Yusuf Adil Shah successfully captured the entire Raichur Doab shortly after the death of Narsimha Raya II. Thimmaraja, however, opposed the appointment of Tuluva Narasa Nayaka to the throne. He joined forces with the young Raya and the combined armies marched to the Doab. Yusuf Adil Shah, leading 8000 cavalry and 200 elephants, left his capital to face the Vijayanagara army and set up camp on the banks of the Krishna River. In the interim, Thimmaraja captured Raichur and then turned back to advance into Adil Shahi territory, heading towards the capital at Bijapur. This led to Yusuf Adil Shah's decision to engage in battle.

Yusuf Adil Shah moved his forces close to the Vijayanagara troops and, after setting up camp, constructed defensive fortifications around his position. Reports suggest that at this point, Tuluva Narasa Nayaka also joined the Vijayanagara forces with his army. The battle took place on a Saturday in April 1493. Initially, the Vijayanagara forces gained the upper hand and seized the initiative. In response to this setback, Yusuf Adil Shah ordered the forces from Bijapur to withdraw and regroup to regain their strength. Believing the withdrawal to be a defeat, the Hindu army began looting and pillaging the area, causing a loss of cohesion. Upon learning of the situation, Yusuf Adil Shah sent a message to Thimmaraja, requesting peace. Confident in his impending victory, Thimmaraja, along with a small group of protectors, went to accept the Muslim king's surrender, only to be attacked by the Bijapur Sultan. Many of the accompanying Hindu chiefs were killed, and Thimmaraja himself was wounded in the skirmish, although he managed to withdraw while fighting back.

Although the Vijayanagara forces regrouped, they were unable to withstand the fierce attack launched by Yusuf Adil Shah and were forced to retreat, leaving behind some elephants and hundreds of horses. The commander's imprudent actions turned a likely victory into a clear defeat. The Adil Shahi forces went on to recapture Mudgal and Raichur. This resulted in a decisive victory for the Adil Shahis.

Taking advantage of internal rebellions during the reign of Adil Shah, Qasim Barid I formed an alliance with Tuluva Narasa Nayaka of Vijayanagara. Qasim Barid requested Tuluva Narasa Nayaka to attack Raichur doab, and in 1496, Narasa Nayaka, with the combined forces of Vijayanagara and Qasim Barid I, successfully attacked and captured the Raichur and Mudgal forts, adding them to the Vijayanagara territory. Yusuf Adil Shah, exhausted from the battle, sued for peace by giving the two forts to Tuluva Narasa Nayaka. However, the peace was short-lived, and the Third Adil Shahi war began in 1502 A.D.

Due to ongoing internal dissent within the Hindu kingdom and the tenuous central control, independent rulers of the divided Bahmani kingdom saw an opportunity to take advantage of the situation. Mahmud Shah, citing unspecified reasons, marched against Vijayanagara, breaking the existing peace. The Muslim army advanced to Hutgi, then joined forces with contingents from other Shahi kingdoms. Splitting into two groups, one moved towards Vijayanagara through Gulbarga, while Mahmud Shah led the other to besiege Raichur in the Doab region. No decisive battle took place, and a peace agreement was reached, with Vijayanagara ceding Raichur and Mudgal to Yusuf Adil Shah of Bijapur. It is evident that Tuluva Narasa Nayaka understood the precarious situation and wisely chose not to engage the combined armies of the Shahi kingdoms on two fronts simultaneously.

Tuluva Narasa Nayaka wasted no time in strengthening his kingdom. As the kingdom under the Bahmani Sultans began to splinter into smaller chiefdoms, a Bahmani minister named Qasim Barid I approached Nayaka with a proposal. He offered Nayaka the forts of Mudgal and Raichur in exchange for his assistance in a war against Yusuf Adil Shah of Bijapur. Narasa Nayaka accepted the offer and sent his army to the region surrounding Raichur Doab. His forces were able to defeat Yusuf Adil Shah. However, in a treacherous turn of events, Yusuf Adil Shah plotted against Tuluva Narasa Nayaka and had him and his seventy high-ranking officers murdered. Despite this, Yusuf Adil Shah managed to reclaim the Doab area and Mudgal from the control of the Vijayanagara empire in 1502.

Second Phase
In 1503, taking advantage of internal rebellions within the Vijayanagara Empire against their new king, Vira Narsimha Raya, Yusuf Adil Shah marched against Kurnool and Adoni. Vira Narsimha Raya was unable to assist his governors at Kurnool and Adoni due to the rebellions. Yusuf Adil Shah successfully besieged Kurnool, causing devastation to the region. He then advanced to Adoni, where the Vijayanagara governor, Kasappa Odaya, sought peace and agreed to pay tribute. Following this, Adil Shah returned to his capital.

While Narasimha II was negotiating trade deals with the Portuguese, war once again broke out with the Bahmani successor kingdoms. The exact cause of these conflicts remains unclear. Some historical accounts refer to and categorize these wars with the Muslim kingdoms to the north as the 'Bahmani Wars'. However, given that almost all the wars fought by Vijayanagara against the Muslims following the breakup of the Bahmani Sultanate were primarily against the Adil Shahi kingdom of Bijapur, they have been named, numbered, and dated as the Adil Shahi Wars in this narrative. Since an identifiable entity as the Bahmani kingdom ceased to exist after its breakup towards the end of the 15th century, it was deemed more fitting to designate the ongoing power struggle between the Muslim kingdoms of the Deccan and the Hindu stronghold in South India as the 'Adil Shahi Wars'.

Mahmud Shah assembled his forces, declared war on Narasimha II, and led them towards Vijayanagara. The army appeared to be a Bahmani force as it was contributed by most of the Shahi kingdoms. This was the last occasion, until a later pivotal battle, when a combined Muslim army invaded Vijayanagara. In this account, the mention of a 'Muslim army' does not imply religious homogeneity of the entire force. The Muslim armies included Hindu soldiers, but were primarily led by Muslim commanders and fought on the side of the Muslim kings and sultans. Similarly, the Vijayanagara army, known as the 'Hindu army', also comprised Muslim soldiers and officers.

Narasimha also gathered his forces to repel the invasion. When the Bahmani army reached Dewly, it was confronted by the chief of Kanchivaram, Pattikonda Rangappa Odeyar. In the ensuing battle, Mahmud Shah was thrown from his horse and nearly trampled to death. Although he was rescued and taken to safety by his bodyguards, the Hindu army believed him to be dead. The Vijayanagara forces captured the Sultan's insignia and royal umbrella and proclaimed victory. Mahmud Shah quickly retreated to his capital, resulting in a conclusive victory for Narasimha II. Since the war ended in a complete defeat of the Bahmani forces, it is unsurprising that this battle is not mentioned in Muslim records, while being celebrated in Vijayanagara chronicles.

The Fifth Adil Shahi War allowed the Adil Shahi dynasty to gain control of the Duab. The fugitive who helped Yusuf Adil Shah achieve victory was appointed as an amir with the title of "Bahadur Khan," and was given fifty elephants and a substantial amount of money. He was then tasked with recapturing Raichur and Mudgal, while Yusuf Adil Shah returned to Bijapur.

Yusuf Adil Shah was a successful ruler of the Bijapur Sultanate, having been adopted as the son of Mahmud Gawan and establishing the Sultanate. However, during his final days, he encountered numerous challenges at the hands of the Portuguese, including the loss of Goa to their forces. Yusuf Adil Shah swiftly launched an attack on Ameer Bereed, who narrowly escaped with the Sultan of Bidar and a handful of followers. This final endeavor proved to be too strenuous for the king, who passed away in Bijapur due to a dropsical ailment. A conflict near Koilkonda culminated in a decisive battle, resulting in Khan's demise after the loss of Goa to the Portuguese. Upon being presented with the betel leaf by the Regent, Yusuf swiftly drew a concealed dagger and fatally pierced Kamal Khan. Yusuf was killed by the royal guards in retaliation.

Main conflict
The conflicts between the Deccan region and Vijayanagara commenced in 1492-93 A.D. immediately following the dissolution of the Bahamani Sultanate. Raichur, Mudgal, Adoni, and the broader region of Karnataka emerged as focal points for these battles. Following the death of Yusuf Adil Shah, the throne was passed on to his son, a courageous military leader who, at a young age, had already led numerous campaigns alongside his father against the Portuguese and Vijayanagara forces.

This significant battle was led by Ismail Adil Shah in 1520 A.D. Seeking to reclaim the territories of Goa and Kurnool, which had been lost to the Portuguese and Vijayanagara during his early reign, Ismail Adil Shah marched to Raichur with an army consisting of 300,000 infantry, 10,000 cavalry, and 200 elephants. Meanwhile, Krishnadevaraya, a magnificent ruler of Vijayanagara, abandoned his campaign against Gajapati upon learning of Ismail Adil Shah's advance and prepared to attack Raichur. He gathered an army of 703,000 infantry, 32,600 cavalry, and 551 elephants, forming an alliance with the Portuguese army. They launched an assault on Raichur, ultimately securing victory in a fierce battle that cost Krishnadevaraya's army 16,000 soldiers, while Ismail Adil Shah was severely defeated and forced to retreat into the jungles to escape from Krishnadevaraya. Consequently, Krishnadevaraya successfully captured Raichur and the Mudgal fort from the Adil Shahi army, enjoying its tribute for the remainder of his life. This battle is considered a major triumph that enhanced the glory of Vijayanagara during Krishnadevaraya's rule, further establishing him as a magnificent ruler who also achieved numerous successes over the neighboring Gajapati Kingdom.



Krishnadevaraya's death in 1529 A.D. sparked turmoil in Vijayanagara. Following his passing, his successors and brother, Achyuta Deva Raya, ascended the throne as the ruler of Vijayanagara. Seizing the opportunity presented by the weakened state of Achyuta Deva Raya and the initial instability in Vijayanagara, Ismail Adil Shah marched to the Raichur doab and Mudgal, reclaiming both territories that had been lost in the Battle of Raichur. Ismail Adil Shah led a large army south and laid siege to Mudgal and Raichur, where both forts fiercely resisted for around three months. Vijayanagara offered no assistance, prompting the forts to surrender. Encouraged by this easy victory and Vijayanagara’s inaction, Adil Shah proceeded towards the capital, arriving at the newly established suburb of Nagalapura.

Despite advice from his ministers and military commanders to engage the invaders in battle, Achyuta Deva Raya chose to seek peace. This decision, seemingly made on his own, marked the first time in its history that Vijayanagara bought peace from an invading army. Achyuta Deva Raya paid a hefty price for peace—100,000 gold pagodas and ceding the city and fort of Raichur to Ismail Adil Shah. Despite extensive research, it remains unclear whether any external factors influenced Achyuta Deva Raya’s decision to sue for peace, particularly given the large, well-equipped, and battle-tested army at his disposal.

Following this uncommon victory, the Shahi kingdoms of the peninsula once again fell into their pattern of incessant internal conflicts, leaving their southern Hindu neighbor to fend for itself without interference.

Upon learning of the death of Bhoj Tarmal and perhaps believing he had a rightful claim to some of the Vijayanagara possessions as much as Rama Raya, Ibrahim Adil Shah I sent Asad Khan with a sizable force to capture the fort of Adoni. Rama Raya then dispatched his brother Venkatadari with an army to confront Asad Khan. Initially, Asad Khan had to retreat, but he quickly regrouped and launched an attack on Venkatadari, causing the Vijayanagara troops to flee and leaving everything on the battlefield, including their leader's children, who were taken captive. Eventually, the children were returned to Venkatadari. Delighted with this victory, Ibrahim Adil Shah I promoted Asad Khan, bestowed rich gifts upon him, and gave him his daughter in marriage, declaring that if she had a son by him, that son would be his heir.

During Timma Raju's brief and chaotic rule, some Vijayanagara nobles sought assistance from Ibrahim Adil Shah I in removing him from power. However, before Ibrahim Adil Shah I could effectively intervene, Rama Raya took control of the administration. The Adil Shah and his army were camped at Raichur, and he sent his commander Asad Khan with part of the army to besiege Adoni. In response, Rama Raya dispatched his brother and the new army commander, Venkatadri, to assist Adoni. Upon arrival, Venkatadri's forces forced Asad Khan to raise the siege, and when Khan attempted to give battle, he chose to retreat in the face of superior forces. Venkatadri, feeling overconfident with his seemingly easy victory, camped for the night. However, Asad Khan, a highly successful commander of the Adil Shahi kingdom, launched a surprise attack in the early hours of the next day. This caught the Vijayanagara forces completely off guard, and Venkatadri fled from his camp, leaving behind valuable treasure and even his family, who were then captured. He requested assistance from Rama Raya, who promptly dispatched it. However, Rama Raya secretly instructed his brother to make peace with the Adil Shahis, as he suspected the loyalty of the Hindu chiefs around Adoni. Rama Raya had received information that these Hindu chiefs were the ones who had prompted Ibrahim Adil Shah I to intervene. As a result, a large sum of gold was presented to Asad Khan, and he was persuaded to intervene with Ibrahim Adil Shah I, leading to the restoration of peace.

In 1543, the kingdom of Bijapur was invaded by a Hindu army that besieged Raichur, led by Jamshid, who also occupied the Gulbarga district and besieged Hippargi, and by Burhän and Ali Barid Shah I, who besieged Sholapur. Ibrahim, feeling besieged from all sides, used flattery and concessions to persuade Burhan and Sadasiva Raya of Vijayanagara to retreat, allowing Asad Khan Läri to attack Jamshid. Asad Khan Läri destroyed a fort that Jamshid had built at Käkni, defeated him twice in the field, and drove him almost to the gates of Golconda, where he again defeated him and wounded him severely in the face in a single combat, following the Deccan tradition. Following these victories, Ibrahim Adil Shah I was able to ensure satisfactory terms.

Ibrahim Adil Shah turned his focus towards his long-time adversary, Burhan Nizam Shah. Seeking aid from the Sadasiva Raya of Vijayanagar, the two armies clashed on the banks of the river Bhima. The battle resulted in a devastating defeat for Burhan Nizam Shah's forces. According to Ferishta, Ibrahim captured 250 elephants, 170 cannons, along with a significant amount of ammunition and camp supplies belonging to Burhan Nizam Shah. Asad Khan fought alongside Ibrahim Adil Shah during this successful campaign.

However, the Adil Shahi army faced opposition as they advanced. Appalaraja, the son of the renowned general Araviti Ramaraja-Timma, tried to block the path of the Muhammadan army, likely near the banks of the Krisna river. According to the Bala-bhagavata of Konerunatha (A.D. 1549), Appala bravely fought against the combined forces of Sava (Adil Shah) and Barid at Kurakacerla, and, despite resisting them bravely, he ultimately perished in battle, entering the afterlife by piercing through the orb of the sun. This suggests that, although the forces of Adil Shah and Barid were initially resisted, the Vijayanagara army was ultimately overcome and the general was killed. The Muhammadans then proceeded to besiege and conquer important forts in the region at their own pace.

In 1568 A.D., Ali Adil Shah found himself embroiled in conflicts with neighboring kingdoms, prompting Hindu chiefs from Adoni and Penugonda to launch attacks on Adil Shahi territory. In response, Ali Adil Shah commissioned an army to besiege Adoni and Penugonda, both of which were under the rule of the Vijayanagara empire. The fierce conflict led to the fall of Adoni to the Bijapur Sultanate in 1568 A.D., while Penugonda managed to fend off the attack.

Ali Adil Shah had previously fought and successfully captured Adoni from Vijayanagara. However, he was unable to capture Penugonda, which was later taken by his successor. He launched attacks on several Vijayanagara territories, including Turgal, Dharwar, and Bankapur, which were under Vijayanagara's influence and ruled by Hindu chiefs. He marched against these locations and promptly launched attacks on all three.The Chieftains of Turgal, Dharwar, and Bankapur, who were under the suzerainty of Vijayanagara, were invaded and subsequently defeated by Ali Adil Shah, resulting in the overthrow of all three states.

During the invasion, Sriranga I was reportedly defeated in a battle and captured by Adil Shah. According to Heras, Sriranga had departed from Penugonda to confront this incursion. A significant battle ensued between the two armies, during which Emperor Ranga unfortunately became a prisoner of Ali Adil Shah.

In 1593, the Bijapur Sultan Ibrahim Adil conquered Mysore, which was under the rule of the Raya, after a three-month siege. During the same year, the Sultan's brother Ismail, who was being held captive at Belgaum, rebelled against his brother and declared himself the independent king of the region. The royal forces besieged Belgaum, but due to betrayal within the camp, they were unable to capture the rebellious prince. This led to unrest and uprisings in the surrounding territories for some time. Eventually, the rebel was defeated and killed. Around the same time, the Hindus also made attempts to seize Adoni but were unsuccessful. Venkata was defeated and a large portion of Mysore was annexed by Bijapur.

Between 1588 and 1593, the kingdom was embroiled in struggles with Ahmadnagar, causing the Nayaks to neglect their tributes. In response, Ibrahim Adıl Shah decided to punish these chiefs and dispatched Manju Khan with a sizable army to the Kannada region. Establishing Bankapur as his headquarters, Manju Khan issued an order demanding all tributary chiefs to pay their outstanding dues, offering protection to those who complied and threatening severe consequences for those who did not. Ganga Nayak, a prominent local chieftain, was the first to submit to Manju Khan. With his assistance, the general marched against Jera, a territory belonging to Arasappa Nayak, and besieged it successfully, leading Arasappa to agree to pay the arrears. Manju Khan then turned his attention to Mysore, capturing the city after a three-month siege, although the rāja soon reclaimed it. If Manju Khan's conquests had continued without interruption, the entire Karnataka region might have been brought under Bijapur Sultanate's control. However, the general was recalled to the capital to assist the Sultan in addressing a new threat to his throne - the rebellion of his younger brother Prince Ismā'il, which shook the very foundations of the State.

Qutb Shahi-Vijayanagara conflicts
After proclaiming himself an independent sovereign in 1512, Sultan Quli Qutb Shah launched attacks on Razukonda and Devarakonda, fortresses located southeast and south-southeast of Hyderabad in Telingana. Following the conquest of the second fortress, Krishnadeva Raya of Vijayanagara led a massive army against the Sultan, invading his territories.Afterward, a battle took place at Pangal.

The fort at Pangal changed hands multiple times. In 1513, the armies of Vijayanagara and Quli Qutb Shah clashed, with Quli Qutb Shah defeating the Velamas at Devarakonda. Quli Qutb Shah then ordered the destruction of temples and palaces, replacing them with mosques. This angered the Vijayanagara king Krishnadevaraya, who led 30,000 horses and 3,000 foot soldiers to march against Quli Qutb Shah. The two armies met at Pangal, where the Vijayanagara army was encamped. In the ensuing battle, the Golconda forces were victorious, forcing Krishnadevaraya to retreat and leave a small force to defend the fort. The fort's occupants held out for nearly two months before surrendering to the Quli Qutb Shah forces. After this, Pangal fell to Quli Qutb Shah and was added to Golconda's territories.

Krishnadeva Raya intervened to provide support while the Sultan Quli Qutb Shah advanced towards Kondavidu and laid siege to the fortress. However, he was compelled to withdraw as a result of relentless attacks from Bellamkonda and Vinukonda, culminating in the successful reduction of the former following significant casualties. Subsequently, the Sultan retreated towards Kondapalle. Upon Krishnadeva Raya's arrival, he launched an assault on the Muhammadan stronghold in Bellamkonda, prompting the Sultan to execute a swift counter-march, ultimately catching the Hindu army by surprise. The Sultan emerged victorious in the ensuing battle, resulting in the lifting of the siege, thereafter repossessing and capturing Kondavidu.

Upon receiving news of the fall of Kondavidu, Krishnadeva Raya dispatched his general and son-in-law Seeva Ray with a formidable force of 100,000 foot soldiers and 8,000 cavalry to confront the Muhammadans. The Sultan, upon learning of this, chose to retreat and set up camp along the banks of the Krishna River, relinquishing control of Kondavidu to the Hindus. After securing the area, the Vijayanagara forces pressed forward in pursuit of the Sultan Quli Qutb Shah, only to be ambushed, defeated, and forced to retreat back to Kondavidu, which was then besieged for a second time by the Golkonda army. Faced with this dire situation, the Hindus eventually capitulated and agreed to become tributary to the enemy. Quli Qutb Shah successfully conquered Kondavidu and erected a tower at its center in order to commemorate his victory.

The battle of the Godavari was fiercely contested, with hand-to-hand combat lasting from morning till noon. Both sides were exhausted and decimated when Qutbu'l-mulk suddenly appeared with two thousand fresh troops, tipping the scales in his favor. The enemy was forced to retreat to Kondavidu, pursued by Qutbu'l-mulk. The Vijayanagaris had to seek peace, and Achyuta agreed to pay three lakhs of hons annually to Golkonda, along with two lakhs in cash and valuable items to Sultan Quli.

In 1536 A.D., Quli Qutb Shah had effectively consolidated his rule over his kingdom through the conquest of various regions in Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, solidifying his position as a formidable sultan in the Deccan. In 1536 A.D., he once again declared war against Vijayanagar.He led a modest force to Nalgonda, which was under the control of Vijayanagara. The fort was defended by Harishchandra, who managed to withstand the siege for several weeks. Quli Qutb Shah successfully captured the fortress of Nalgonda and executed its Vijayanagara chief, Harishchandra. This marked the end of the Hindu rule in the region.

Ali Adil Shah and Sadasiva Raya allied forces launched an attack on the Parbhani District, which was under the rule of Ibrahim Qutb Shah. In the fierce engagement that followed, the army of Ibrahim Qutb Shah was initially defeated, prompting Sadasiva Raya to send troops to secure the guns left behind. Subsequently, these troops encountered the forces of Ibrahim Qutb Shah, engaged in battle, and emerged victorious. Ibrahim Qutb Shah then regrouped his forces behind Hussain Nizam Shah I's camp, allowing for reinforcements to arrive. The troops of Bijapur and Vijayanagara were repelled, leading to the retreat of Sadasiva Raya's army to Vijayanagara and Ali Adil Shah's forces to Bijapur. However, Hussain Nizam Shah I suffered significant losses, leading to considerable humiliation.

In 1579, During Ibrahim Qutb Shah's military campaigns against neighboring kingdoms, Hindu chiefs sought allegiance from Vijayanagara and revolted against the sultan. In response, the sultan assembled a small army and launched an attack. Despite initial resistance, the Hindu forces eventually had to surrender to the sultan's forces. Ibrahim Qutb Shah successfully captured the strong Hindu fortress of Kondivalu, putting an end to Hindu rule in the Kistna or Krishna district.

In 1579, the king of Golconda Sultanate, in violation of his agreement, launched attacks on and successfully conquered the fortresses of Vinukonda, Kondavid, Kacharlakota, and Kammam, thereby gaining control over extensive territories to the south of the Krishna River.

It was only after 1006/1597 that Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah sent his trusted Mir Jumla Aminu'l-Mulk with a strong force to the south. He received intelligence that Ramaraya's son-in-law Basawanta Rāj and his sister's son Narasimha Rāj were holding the forts of Nandyal and Kalāgür. In order to remove them from power, Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah joined the army and crossed the Krishna River at Musalimudugu to lay siege to Nandyal. The fort was soon captured, prompting Narasimha Raj to send messengers to surrender, requesting safe passage for his family. The Sultan agreed, ensuring their protection and the security of their property. This led to the evacuation of Nandyal by Basawanta Raj and the submission of other chiefs in the area, who agreed to pay tribute to the Sultan in exchange for maintaining control of their territories. Additionally, the forts of Gooty, Kurnool, and Gandikota were occupied.

The swift and comprehensive victories of the royal forces, along with the submission of nearly all the chiefs between the Krishna River and Penukonda, emboldened the Sultan to direct his focus towards the capital itself. Following the capture of Gandikota, he commanded Amīnu'l-mulk to advance towards the capital. Venkata II, anticipating defeat in an open battle, employed a cunning strategy. He dispatched his ministers Goparāj Timma and Papaiyah Setti with a letter and valuable gifts to the Sultan, proposing a temporary armistice of three days in preparation for a lasting peace treaty. Impressed by the apparent sincerity of the envoys and the lavish presents, the Sultan ordered the royal troops to lift the siege on Penukonda.

Seizing the opportunity, the Venkata II ensured that both the citadel and the city were well-stocked with provisions during the temporary ceasefire. However, when the truce expired, instead of negotiating a permanent treaty as promised, he gathered his allies, including Achyuta Nayak of Tanjore, and ordered them to launch an assault on the Telangana army. They attacked with 30000 horsemen and 4000 musketeers, catching the Sultan off guard. Realizing his error in trusting the Raya's intentions, the Sultan attempted to recommence the siege on Penukonda. However, his advisors cautioned against it, noting that the city was well-supplied and that it would take months to capture it. Furthermore, with the impending floods of the Krishna River, it would be impossible for the army to retreat home.

But Venkata II would not let Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah rest in peace. The Krishna River was in spate and it was impossible for the Tilang army to be sent to the help of those who were virtually besieged at Kondavidu and elsewhere. Venkata II now sent a large army,100000 troops led by Timayya, Gulranga Setti, Manuparaj, and Velugoti Chennappa was dispatched to Gandikota. The fort, commanded by Sarnaubat Sanjar Khan, was besieged. Meanwhile, Murtaza Khan launched a surprise attack on Cuddapah from the other side, disrupting Venkata II's strategy. In response, Venkata II instructed Timmaraj and Manuparaj to confront Murtaza Khan, but they were defeated and forced to retreat.

Venkata II endeavored to revive the economic prosperity of the villages in the northern districts that had been negatively impacted by recent Muslim attacks.

Battle of Jamgaon
Following this advice, the king stationed a garrison of well-equipped soldiers with artillery in the fort of Ahmednagar. He then crossed the Godavari river with the rest of his army and established his headquarters in Paithan. In his absence, Rama Raya of Vijayanagara arrived at Ahmadnagar with his army and besieged the fortress, leading to widespread plunder and persecution of the people, particularly the poor Muslims.

Rama Raya, Ali Adil Shah, and Ibrahim Qutb Shah continued to ravage the surrounding countryside of Ahmadnagar, but faced challenges due to heavy rains causing impassable mud and shortage of fodder for the elephants. The army of Ahmadnagar retaliated by attacking the enemy's camp, causing fear and restricting their movement. In response to reports of Rama Raya planning to raid as far as the Godavari, the king sent a force of Iraqi and Khurasani horsemen led by Mavali Khan, Sanjar Khan, Daulat Khan, Dastur Khan, Vazir Khan, and Satya to intercept the Hindus and eliminate the threat. They engaged in a fierce battle near Jamgaon and emerged victorious, forcing the Hindus to flee for their lives. Many of their horses and weapons were captured as spoils of war.

Battle of Talikota (1565)
The Battle of Talikota took place in 1565 between the Vijayanagara Empire and a coalition of Deccan Sultanates. The Vijayanagara Empire, led by Rama Raya, faced a coalition of four sultanates, including the Bijapur Sultanate, the Ahmadnagar Sultanate, the Golconda Sultanate, and the Bidar Sultanate. The armies consisted of tens of thousands of soldiers on both sides. The battle resulted in a decisive victory for the Deccan Sultanates, leading to the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire and the beginning of their decline.

In the Battle of Talikota in 1565, Rama Raya led the Vijayanagara Empire, commanding an army of 140,000 infantry, 10,000 cavalry, and 100 war elephants. They were confronted by a coalition of the Deccan Sultanates, which had 50,000 infantry, 3,000 cavalry, and the advantage of cannons.

Following the defeat, Rama Raya was executed and a brutal massacre occurred, resulting in the loss of nearly his entire army, with casualties reaching over 100,000. This marked a major turning point in the history of the Vijayanagara Empire and led to its eventual decline.

Fall of Vijayanagara
After the Battle of Talikota, Rama Raya met his end when he was beheaded by Sultan Hussain Nizam Shah I, or by someone else acting on the sultan's orders, despite the Adil Shah having previously maintained friendly relations with Raya and not intending harm against him. In the ensuing chaos and destruction, Raya's brother Tirumala Deva Raya deserted with the entire army. While he attempted to regroup in Vijaynagara, his efforts were unsuccessful, and he ultimately moved to the outskirts of the area. Another brother of Raya, Venkatadri, was blinded and presumably killed during the battle.

Decline of Vijayanagara
Following the Battle of Talikota in 1565, the Vijayanagara empire experienced a rapid decline, particularly after the execution of Rama Raya. The empire suffered a significant setback at the hands of the Deccan Sultanates during this battle, where a devastating blow was dealt to the Vijayanagara army with over 100,000 soldiers being killed. Furthermore, the Bijapur army made substantial inroads into Vijayanagara territory, leading to the destruction of idols and temples.

Subsequently, the Vijayanagara empire struggled to recover and regain its former strength. Ultimately, in 1614, the empire reached its nadir following the execution of its last ruler at the hands of the Madurai Nayaks, signaling the complete decline of the once-mighty Vijayanagara empire.

Aftermath
The prolonged series of battles led to the depletion of Vijayanagara's resources, loss of wealth and manpower. These wars ultimately ended in the defeat and death of many Vijayanagara rulers, including Narasimha Raya II, Tuluva Narasa Nayaka, and ultimately Rama Raya.After the Battle of Talikota, the Vijayanagara Empire declined completely and fragmented. Some of the fragments became vassals of the Deccan Sultanates, while others ruled the southernmost end independently. The Battle of Talikota ultimately led to the complete downfall of the Vijayanagara Empire.