Draft:British concession of Hankow

The British concession of Hankow (Chinese: 漢口英租界; Wade–Giles: Han-k'ou Ying Tsu-chieh) was one of the twelve British concessions in the late Ch'ing dynasty and the Republic of China. It was established after the conclusion of the Second Opium War in 1861 and dissolved during the Northern Expedition in 1927. The British concession of Hankow was one of the five foreign concessions located within Han-k’ou, present-day Wu-han, Hupeh.

Pre-establishment
Prior to the establishment of the British concession of Hankow, Han-k’ou served as a major junction on the Yangtze River for westerners and Chinese alike. The strategic location of Han-k’ou as the intersection of the Yangtze and the Han River made it a vital port city. Roman Catholic missions had been established in the city as early as 1696. Russian tea merchants travelling across China probably visited the city as well. Because of the early influence of the Russian tea merchants, the first factories established in Han-k’ou produced Brick tea and tablet tea. In the mid-19th century, Han-k’ou was devastated by the Taiping Rebellion. During the Taiping Rebellion, Han-k’ou was a site of intense fighting and was captured and recaptured by both sides many times. In the November of 1852, Han-k’ou was partly razed by the defending Ch'ing forces in a effort to slow down to advance of the Taipings. But, on December 27, 1852, Han-k’ou falls to the advancing Taiping troops. But in the February of 1853, Ch’ing forces led by General Hsiang Rung recaptured the three cities of Wu-han. In the fall of 1853, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom launched the Western Expedition to recapture the Wu-han area. In the October of 1854, the Ch’ing army expelled the Taiping forces from Han-k’ou again. In the January of 1855, Han-k’ou and Han-yang were recaptured by Taiping for the last time. In the summer of 1855, Ch’ing forces led by Hu Lin-i besieged the Wu-han area and Han-k’ou became the site of intense fighting yet again. On the December 19, 1856, the fighting around the Han-k’ou area finally came to an end with the recapture of Wu-ch’ang by the Ch’ing troops. Han-k’ou, Wu-ch’ang, and Han-yang emerged from the war a burning heap of rubble.

After the Second Opium War, James Bruce, 8th Earl of Elgin, the British negotiator of the Treaty of Tientsin (1858), embarked on a trip down the Yangtze River to survey sites for potential treaty ports. Han-k’ou quickly caught his attention due to its rapid recovery from the Taiping Rebellion, bustling commercial sector, and favourable location on the Yangtze River. Three years after the signing of the Treaty of Tientsin, in the March of 1861, Han-k’ou was officially opened as a treaty port. The opening Han-k’ou as a treaty port provided the British with far more than just commercial benefits. Being the furthest city that ocean-going vessels could reach into China’s heartland, it enabled Britain a dominant “sphere of influence” over the thousand navigable kilometres of the Yangtze.

Establishment
On March 11, 1861, an expedition led by Admiral James Hope reached the city and it was decided as a site for future concessions in China. The area determined for the concession had boundaries that extended up the Yangtze 838.2 metres and inland 368.808 metres. Lengthy negotiations between the James Bruce, 8th Earl of Elgin, Kuan-wen, 95th Viceroy of Hu-kuang, and Han-yang prefect Liu Ch’i-yü over the lease for the concession, pricing of lots, and the payments to be issued to the evicted Chinese were finally concluded in the September of 1862. By the end of 1861, thirteen foreign firms had already established themselves in Han-k’ou. Due to the low-lying location of the concession, it was decided that a bund would be constructed. When the Han-k’ou Bund was completed in 1863, it was essentially a mirror of the Shanghai Bund. Tall Victorian-style building and trees lined the spacious Han-k’ou Bund. The Han-k’ou bund was also a port that served as a port for cargo ships and a stop in the Yangtze Patrol.

Late 19th Century and Pre-First World War
In the late 19th century, the British concession of Hankow was joined by the German concession in 1895, the French concession in 1896, the Russian concession also in 1896, and the Japanese concession in 1898.

While the first foreign factories established in Han-k’ou failed due to being cut off from their customer base, later arrivals to Han-k’ou’s industrial trade were more successful because they focused on local markets. Because of this, foreign firms targeted Chinese customers.

Firms like Shanghai Machine Company and New Engine and Iron Works satisfied the need for modern in factories, construction projects, and lighting plants. In 1895, the Standard Oil Company of New York, a predecessor of ExxonMobil, established itself in Han-k’ou to need the demand for oil that was used in power generators, ships, and lighting. In 1901, Royal Dutch Petroleum Company, a predecessor of Royal Dutch Shell, joined the Standard Oil Company of New York in Han-k’ou.

In the 1911 Revolution, also known as the Hsin-hai Revolution, revolutionaries from the New Army quickly captured Han-k’ou. During the Revolution, the three cities of Han-k’ou, Han-yang, and Wu-ch’ang were again devastated. Because of the Revolution, many civilians fled from the Chinese sector of the city into the foreign concessions for safety. The Ch’ing forces led by Yüan Shih-k’ai reduced Han-k’ou to a pile of rubble through massive shelling. But, like before, Han-k’ou quickly recovered from the devastation.

First World War
Han-k’ou was barely touched by the First World War but some changes did occur. For example, when the Republic of China declared war on the Central Powers in 1917, the German concession of Hankow was quickly confiscated.

Dis-establishment
In the course of the Northern Expedition in 1927, Kuomintang troops of the National Revolutionary Army occupied the British concession of Hankow and showed no intention of withdrawing. In the Ch’en-O’Malley Agreement, it was agreed that the British concession of Hankow would be jointly administered by the Republic of China and the United Kingdom. Finally in 1929, the British concession of Hankow was formally dissolved and re-joined the Republic of China as the Third Special Area.