Draft:Coral reef preservation

Groups around the world are involved in various efforts and research aimed toward the preservation of coral reefs — a rapidly declining and  vital component of Earth's ecosystem.

The importance of coral reefs
Healthy coral reefs provide numerous benefits to both marine ecosystems and human societies.

Biodiversity Hotspots: Coral reefs are among the most biodiverse ecosystems on the planet, supporting a wide array of marine life. They provide habitat, food, and shelter for countless species, including fish, invertebrates, and algae. Healthy coral reefs harbor a rich diversity of species, contributing to overall oceanic biodiversity.

Economic Value: Coral reefs are valuable economic resources for coastal communities and industries. They support commercial and artisanal fisheries, providing food and livelihoods for millions of people worldwide. Additionally, coral reef-based tourism, including activities like snorkeling, diving, and recreational fishing, generates significant revenue for coastal economies.

Coastal Protection: Coral reefs act as natural barriers that protect coastlines from erosion, storm surges, and wave damage. Healthy coral reefs help dissipate wave energy and reduce the impacts of storms, protecting coastal communities, infrastructure, and beaches from damage and flooding.

Carbon Cycling: Coral reefs play a role in the global carbon cycle by sequestering carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and storing it in their calcium carbonate skeletons. This process helps mitigate climate change by removing carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, from the atmosphere and reducing its concentration in the oceans.

Medicinal Resources: Coral reefs are a potential source of new pharmaceuticals and medicinal compounds. Many marine organisms found on coral reefs produce bioactive compounds that have been used or studied for their potential medical applications, including treatments for cancer, pain, and infectious diseases.

Cultural Importance: Coral reefs have cultural significance for many coastal communities and indigenous peoples around the world. They are integral to traditional customs, beliefs, and practices, serving as sources of inspiration, sustenance, and spiritual connection.

Ecosystem Services: Coral reefs provide a wide range of ecosystem services that benefit human societies, including nutrient cycling, water filtration, and habitat provisioning. These services support the health and functioning of coastal and marine ecosystems, contributing to overall ecosystem resilience and stability.

Global decline of coral reefs
According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), since the 1980s, coral bleaching events have become more frequent and severe due to climate change. In recent decades, the frequency of global bleaching events has increased fivefold, with devastating consequences for coral reef ecosystems.

The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) reports that coral cover has declined by an estimated 50% over the past few decades. Factors contributing to this decline include bleaching, disease outbreaks, pollution, overfishing, and habitat destruction, posing significant threats to reef biodiversity and ecosystem health.

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) estimates that 75% of the world's coral reefs are currently threatened by a combination of local and global stressors.

Threats
Climate Change: Rising sea temperatures lead to coral bleaching, where corals expel symbiotic algae, making them more susceptible to disease and death. Ocean acidification also weakens coral skeletons.

Pollution: Runoff from coastal development, agriculture, and industry introduces sediment, nutrients, pesticides, and plastics into reef ecosystems, leading to smothering, algal overgrowth, and disease.

Overfishing and Destructive Practices: Overfishing disrupts reef ecosystems by removing key species, while destructive practices like blast fishing and cyanide fishing directly damage corals and deplete fish populations. Efforts to educate and collaborate with local fishermen, such as Arizona State University's work with fishermen living on the island of El Pardito to implement solar-powered lights in fishing nets, have increased.

Coastal Development: Dredging, land reclamation, and construction introduce pollutants and sedimentation, directly damaging reefs and increasing stress on ecosystems.

Unsustainable Tourism: Activities like snorkeling, diving, when not performed in a nature-conscious way, and coastal development associated with tourism can physically damage reefs and introduce pollution, exacerbating stress on coral ecosystems. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2291018/#:~:text=Sunscreens%20cause%20the%20rapid%20and,symbiotic%20zooxanthellae%20with%20latent%20infections. Sunscreen rapidly and completely bleaches hard corals], even at extremely low concentrations. Lack of education around the needs of and ongoing threats to coral reefs can lead to unknowingly disruptive and damaging human behavior.

Invasive Species: Invasive species outcompete native organisms, reducing biodiversity and disrupting reef ecosystems.

Illegal Wildlife Trade: The illegal trade of reef species contributes to overexploitation and habitat degradation, further threatening coral reef ecosystems.

Disruptive weather: Severe weather events like hurricanes and tsunamis can cause physical damage to reefs, disrupting their structure and reducing coral cover.

Invasive species
Crown-of-Thorns Starfish (Acanthaster planci): This species preys on coral polyps, posing a major threat to coral reefs, especially during population outbreaks.

Lionfish (Pterois spp.): Native to the Indo-Pacific but introduced to other regions, lionfish are voracious predators that consume a wide variety of reef fish and compete with native predators for food resources.

Tubeworms (Spirobranchus spp.): Certain species of tubeworms, also known as Christmas tree worms, can rapidly colonize coral reefs and outcompete native species for space, potentially smothering corals.

'''Caulerpa spp. (Green Algae):''' Some species of Caulerpa, commonly known as green algae, are invasive and can overgrow coral reefs, displacing native algae and disrupting reef ecosystems.

Mollusks (e.g., Coralliophila spp.): Certain predatory mollusks, such as the corallivorous snail Coralliophila spp., feed on coral tissue, causing damage to coral colonies and inhibiting their growth.

Macroalgae (Various Species): Invasive macroalgae species can rapidly colonize coral reefs, outcompeting native corals and algae for space and light, thereby altering reef structure and biodiversity.

Red Algae (Kappaphycus spp. and Eucheuma spp.): These species, commonly used in the production of carrageenan, have been introduced to coral reef environments where they can proliferate and outcompete native species.

Crown-of-Thorns Seastar (Acanthaster spp.): Similar to the crown-of-thorns starfish, certain species of crown-of-thorns seastars are known to feed on coral polyps, causing significant damage to coral reefs.

Bleaching
Coral bleaching is primarily caused by environmental stressors that disrupt the symbiotic relationship between corals and the photosynthetic algae called zooxanthellae that live within their tissues. The main factors that trigger coral bleaching include:

Elevated Sea Temperatures: High sea temperatures, often associated with prolonged heatwaves or periods of unusually warm water, can cause corals to expel their zooxanthellae. This expulsion results in the loss of the algae's pigments, which give corals their vibrant colors, leaving behind a bleached appearance.

Sunlight Intensity: Excessive sunlight, particularly when combined with high water temperatures, can lead to photoinhibition, a process where the photosynthetic machinery of zooxanthellae becomes damaged. This damage prompts corals to expel the algae to protect themselves, resulting in bleaching.

Ocean Acidification: Increasing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere lead to ocean acidification, which can impair the ability of corals to maintain their calcium carbonate skeletons. Weakened coral structures are more susceptible to stress and bleaching events.

Pollution: Pollution from runoff, coastal development, and other human activities can introduce stressors such as sedimentation, nutrients, and chemicals into reef environments. These pollutants can directly harm corals and exacerbate the effects of other stressors, leading to bleaching.

Salinity Changes: Rapid changes in salinity, such as those caused by heavy rainfall or freshwater input from rivers, can stress corals and disrupt their ability to maintain a stable internal environment, potentially leading to bleaching.

Disease Outbreaks: Infectious diseases affecting corals can weaken their health and resilience, making them more susceptible to bleaching when exposed to environmental stressors.

Natural Phenomena: Other natural phenomena, such as El Niño and La Niña events, can cause fluctuations in sea surface temperatures and weather patterns, which may trigger widespread bleaching events on a regional or global scale.

Sunscreen: While individual use of sunscreen may seem insignificant, the cumulative effect of sunscreen pollution in popular tourist areas can have significant impacts on coral reef ecosystems.

Sunscreen bleaching
Sunscreen can contribute to coral bleaching through the presence of certain chemicals, particularly oxybenzone and octinoxate, which are commonly found in many sunscreens. Here's how sunscreen can impact coral reefs:

Chemical Pollution: When people swim, snorkel, or dive in coral reef environments while wearing sunscreen, the chemicals in the sunscreen can be released into the water. Oxybenzone and octinoxate are known to be harmful to marine life, including corals, even in small concentrations.

Toxicity to Corals: Studies have shown that oxybenzone and octinoxate can disrupt coral reproduction, growth, and development. These chemicals can interfere with coral DNA, cause deformities in coral larvae, and induce coral bleaching by increasing the susceptibility of corals to environmental stressors such as high temperatures.

Algae Symbiosis Disruption: Oxybenzone has been found to disrupt the symbiotic relationship between corals and their algae (zooxanthellae), leading to coral bleaching. By interfering with the photosynthetic processes of zooxanthellae, oxybenzone reduces the energy available to corals and weakens their resilience to stress.

Coral Disease Susceptibility: Chemicals in sunscreen can make corals more susceptible to diseases by weakening their immune systems and compromising their ability to defend against pathogens.

To mitigate these impacts, some regions have implemented regulations or initiatives to encourage the use of reef-safe sunscreens, which are free from oxybenzone and octinoxate, and promote alternative sun protection methods such as wearing UV-protective clothing or seeking shade.

Reef-safe sunscreen
The best sunscreens for coral reefs are those labeled as "reef-safe" or "reef-friendly." These sunscreens are formulated without harmful chemicals such as oxybenzone and octinoxate, which are known to be damaging to coral reefs and marine life. Instead, reef-safe sunscreens typically use mineral-based ingredients like zinc oxide or titanium dioxide as the active ingredients for sun protection. These minerals create a physical barrier on the skin that reflects and scatters UV radiation, providing effective sun protection without harming coral reefs. Additionally, reef-safe sunscreens are often biodegradable and free from other potentially harmful chemicals and additives.

Some brands also use terms like "coral reef safe" or "marine safe" to indicate that their products are environmentally friendly. When choosing a reef-safe sunscreen, look for products that are labeled as "biodegradable," "non-nano," and "oxybenzone-free" or "octinoxate-free." You can also check the ingredients list to ensure these harmful chemicals are not listed.

It's important to note that while reef-safe sunscreens are better for coral reefs, they still need to be applied responsibly to minimize environmental impact. Avoid excessive use of sunscreen, especially in areas with fragile coral reef ecosystems, and consider using additional sun protection measures such as wearing UV-protective clothing, seeking shade, and avoiding peak sun exposure times when possible.

Disruptive weather
Weather can adversely affect coral reefs through several mechanisms:

Storm Damage: Severe weather events such as hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons can cause physical damage to coral reefs through strong winds, waves, and storm surges. These events can break coral colonies, dislodge coral fragments, and scatter reef organisms, disrupting the reef's structure and biodiversity.

Sedimentation: Heavy rainfall associated with storms can lead to increased runoff from land, carrying sediment, pollutants, and nutrients into coastal waters. Excessive sedimentation can smother corals, blocking sunlight and inhibiting their growth and survival.

Temperature Fluctuations: Weather patterns can lead to fluctuations in sea surface temperatures, which can stress corals and increase their susceptibility to bleaching. Sudden temperature changes, such as cold snaps or heatwaves, can disrupt the delicate balance of coral reef ecosystems.

Wave Energy: High wave energy during storms can cause physical abrasion and breakage of coral colonies, particularly in shallow reef areas. Intense wave action can also dislodge corals and other reef organisms, leading to habitat loss and fragmentation.

Turbidity: Storms can increase water turbidity by stirring up sediments and resuspending particulate matter in the water column. Elevated turbidity reduces water clarity, limiting the amount of sunlight reaching coral reefs and hindering coral photosynthesis and growth.

Salinity Changes: Heavy rainfall and freshwater influxes from rivers during storms can lower the salinity of coastal waters, affecting the osmoregulation of reef organisms. Corals may experience osmotic stress, leading to reduced growth rates and increased susceptibility to disease.

While weather patterns are a natural part of coral reef ecosystems, extreme or prolonged weather events can pose significant challenges to the health and resilience of coral reefs.

Coral reef restoration
Coral propagation can improve coral cover, biodiversity, and structural heterogeneity of a degraded reef. Success has been achieved with fire coral, Pocillopora verrucosa, and Acropora hemprichii. A restored reef hosts organisms associated with the reef, such as reef fishes.

Reefs are delicate and complex ecosystems. It is difficult to replicate what a damaged reef looked like before the damage occurred. Most coral farms that are utilized for mitigation of damage are only able to propagate the fast growing corals that are easy to grow. Slow growing corals are expensive to propagate and are not a fast growing foundation species which is needed when damage occurs. Most coral reefs will take decades to return to their previous state. Nursery-grown coral promote reef resilience by making contributions to the larval pool. This could have a positive effect on new growth if transplanting of the new coral is made just before a larval release season.

Oceanographer Baruch Rinkevich coined the term active restoration to describe coral reef farming, in contrast with what he described as passive restoration efforts focused on mitigation of stressors by means such as the designation of marine protected areas (MPAs). Coral reefs are often placed in MPAs in the hope that reducing human activity will allow the coral to recover.

Organizations, programs and projects
The following is an incomplete list of global organizations actively involved in preserving coral reefs around the world:

The Nature Conservancy: They work on coral reef conservation through their Global Marine Initiative, implementing various strategies such as marine protected areas and sustainable fishing practices.

Coral Reef Alliance (CORAL): CORAL focuses on protecting coral reefs by partnering with local communities, governments, and businesses to promote conservation measures and sustainable tourism.

World Wildlife Fund (WWF): WWF is involved in various conservation efforts, including coral reef protection. They work on issues like climate change, overfishing, and pollution that threaten coral reefs.

Reef Check Foundation: Reef Check trains volunteers to monitor the health of coral reefs worldwide. They also work with governments and communities to implement conservation and management strategies.

International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI): ICRI is a partnership among governments, non-governmental organizations, and international agencies aimed at preserving coral reefs globally through collaboration and knowledge-sharing.

Coral Restoration Foundation: This organization focuses on actively restoring coral reefs through techniques like coral farming, outplanting, and monitoring to promote reef resilience and recovery.

Australian Marine Conservation Society (AMCS): AMCS is dedicated to protecting Australia's marine environment, including its coral reefs. They advocate for policy measures to address threats like climate change and industrial activities.

Mote Marine Laboratory & Aquarium: Mote conducts research and conservation efforts focused on coral reefs in Florida and beyond, including coral restoration projects and monitoring of reef health.

The Coral Triangle Initiative (CTI): CTI is a multilateral partnership among six countries in the Coral Triangle region aimed at conserving marine biodiversity, including coral reefs, through sustainable management practices.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Coral Reef Preservation Program (NOAA): The Coral Reef Conservation Program is a partnership between the NOAA Line Offices that work on coral reef issues. On their website, they state they bring together expertise from across NOAA for a multidisciplinary approach to understanding and conserving coral reef ecosystems.

Coral Guardian: Coral Guardian is a non-governmental organization. Since 2012, they state they have been working internationally and with local communities to protect coral ecosystems.

Coral Gardeners: Using the latest techniques and methods, the Coral Gardeners' team states on their website that they grow and plant resilient corals to revive reef ecosystems. Their aim is to expand restoration around the world and empower the local communities to become coral gardeners as part of a bluer economy.

Ocean Rescue Alliance: Ocean Rescue Alliance International (ORAI) is a 501(c)(3) marine conservation and restoration nonprofit organization that implements innovative technologies to restore our marine environments.

Florida Reef Resilience Program: This program brings together various organizations, agencies, and stakeholders to address the decline of coral reefs in Florida through research, restoration, and management efforts.

SSI Blue Oceans: The SSI Blue Oceans movement supports the conservation and sustainable use of aquatic environments, including oceans, seas, coasts, and waterways and their magnificent diversity of plant and animal species.

Many more are likely to exist and be actively contributing to the preservation of global coral reefs in some way. Localized efforts in remote regions may be missed by the public eye — while still actively working toward solutions.

Multinational efforts
Numerous states and regions around the world are actively involved in coral preservation efforts through various strategies and initiatives.

Australia: As home to the Great Barrier Reef, one of the largest coral reef ecosystems in the world, Australia has implemented extensive conservation measures. These include the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, which manages the marine park through zoning, regulations, and conservation programs. Australia also invests in research, monitoring, and coral restoration projects.

United States (Hawaii and Florida): States like Hawaii and Florida are home to significant coral reef ecosystems. Hawaii has established marine protected areas, community-based conservation initiatives, and research programs through organizations like the Hawaii Coral Reef Initiative. In Florida, the Florida Reef Tract is protected through marine sanctuaries, restoration efforts, and partnerships between government agencies, research institutions, and non-profit organizations. The Florida Reef Resilience Program: brings together various organizations, agencies, and stakeholders to address the decline of coral reefs in Florida through research, restoration, and management efforts.

Philippines: The Philippines is a coral-rich country with extensive reef systems. The government has implemented various conservation measures, including marine protected areas, sustainable fishing regulations, and community-based management approaches. Organizations like the Coral Triangle Initiative also support regional cooperation for coral reef conservation.

Indonesia: Indonesia is home to the Coral Triangle, the epicenter of marine biodiversity. The government has established marine protected areas, conservation initiatives, and partnerships with local communities and NGOs to protect coral reefs. Indonesia also implements measures to address illegal fishing and trade of coral reef species.

Maldives: The Maldives relies heavily on coral reefs for tourism, fisheries, and coastal protection. The government has established marine protected areas, sustainable tourism practices, and coral reef monitoring programs. The Maldives also implements climate change adaptation measures to protect reefs from rising sea temperatures and ocean acidification.

Caribbean nations (e.g., Belize, Bahamas): Caribbean nations like Belize and the Bahamas have implemented marine protected areas, sustainable fishing regulations, and conservation initiatives to protect coral reefs. These countries also collaborate regionally through organizations like the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and the Caribbean Biodiversity Fund to address common challenges.

Pacific Island nations (e.g., Fiji, Palau): Pacific Island nations are actively involved in coral reef conservation through marine protected areas, community-based management approaches, and sustainable tourism practices. These countries also advocate for global action on climate change to protect reefs from warming seas and ocean acidification.

University impact
Many universities across the world are involved in coral preservation efforts. The following is an incomplete list of these universities and their efforts.

Arizona State University: Tackling the vast challenge of coral reef degradation, the ʻĀkoʻakoʻa mission is realized through the cohesive integration of Cultural Leadership, Scientific Diagnosis and Intervention, Multi-modal Education, and Government Support, each playing a crucial role in rejuvenating West Hawaiʻi's marine ecosystems.

The University of Miami: The university’s Rescue a Reef coral restoration project focuses on propagating threatened staghorn coral (Acropora cervicornis) in underwater coral nurseries to create a sustainable source of healthy coral colonies for use in restoration activities. Their methods aim to minimize negative impacts on wild populations while using strong, science-based restoration techniques to enhance staghorn populations on Florida reefs.

Florida Atlantic University: The Robertson Coral Reef Research & Conservation Program program leads the research and conservation programs on deep water and mesophotic coral reefs for the NOAA Cooperative Institute for Ocean Exploration, Research, and Technology (CIOERT). John’s research is not only scientifically important, but it has also directly resulted in the protection of fragile deep water coral habitats.

Nova Southeastern University Florida: The Nova Southeastern University Halmos College of Arts and Sciences Coral and Climate Research works with diverse global partners to understand and mitigate climate change impacts, protect ocean health and restore the functioning of our coral reef ecosystems.

James Cook University (Australia): Located in Queensland, Australia, JCU is renowned for its research on coral reefs, including coral bleaching, reef resilience, and conservation biology. The university is currently using their National Sea Simulator, a world-class marine research facility containing more than 30 seawater processing tanks and capable of pumping in excess of 3 million litres of seawater a day, to help identify coral survival thresholds for varying levels of sediment pollution, such as in areas of intensive river run-off and dredging works.

University of Queensland (Australia): Supported by Heron Island Research Station — one of the best equipped reef research stations in the world – UQ marine research is exploring coral reef fish biology and ecology, predicting and preventing Crown-of-Thorns starfish outbreaks along the Great Barrier Reef, studying critical ecosystem engineers such as corals and sponges and measuring, mapping and monitoring biological, physical and chemical properties of the Earth’s environments to document their change over time.

University of the Ryukyus (Japan): Located in Okinawa, Japan, the Coral Reef Ecology and Systematics Group at the University of the Ryukyus conducts research on coral reef ecology, conservation genetics, and the impacts of climate change on coral reefs in the Asia-Pacific region. This group is studying ecology, systematics, and conservation biology of coral reef organisms, especially of reef-building corals — involving field survey (using SCUBA) and laboratory experiments (using aquariums in Sesoko Station and molecular analyses).

University of the Philippines Marine Science Institute (Philippines): UP MSI conducts research on coral reef ecosystems in the Philippines, including reef resilience, biodiversity conservation, and sustainable management practices.

University of Exeter (UK): The Centre for Ecology and Conservation at the University of Exeter conducts research on coral reef ecology, conservation genetics, and the impacts of climate change on coral reefs worldwide. They are working toward solutions including marine protected areas, bycatch mitigation, sustainable aquaculture and renewable energy. We have particular strengths in marine megavertebrate ecology, migratory species and coral reef systems.

University of California, Santa Cruz (USA): The UCUS Coastal Resilience Lab conducts research on coral reef ecology, coral disease dynamics, and the effects of climate change on coral reefs in the Pacific and Caribbean.

Hotel involvement
Several hotels and resorts around the world are actively involved in coral restoration and preservation efforts through various initiatives and partnerships.

Baha Mar (The Bahamas): Baha Mar, a luxury resort complex in The Bahamas, partners with The Bahamas National Trust and other organizations to support coral restoration efforts. They have implemented programs to protect coral reefs, including education and outreach activities, coral nurseries, and reef monitoring programs.

Four Seasons Resort Maldives at Landaa Giraavaru (Maldives): The Four Seasons Resort Maldives at Landaa Giraavaru has a dedicated Marine Discovery Centre that conducts coral reef research and restoration projects. They operate a coral propagation program, which includes a coral nursery and transplantation of corals onto damaged reef areas.

Anantara Hotels, Resorts & Spas (Various Locations): Anantara operates several properties in locations with coral reef ecosystems, such as the Maldives, Thailand, and the United Arab Emirates. They engage in coral reef conservation through initiatives like coral restoration projects, marine protection programs, and sustainable tourism practices.

Mauna Lani, Auberge Resorts Collection (Hawaii, USA): Mauna Lani, located on the Big Island of Hawaii, partners with local organizations like The Nature Conservancy to support coral reef conservation efforts. They offer educational programs for guests, participate in reef monitoring initiatives, and implement sustainable practices to reduce their environmental impact.

InterContinental Bora Bora Resort & Thalasso Spa (French Polynesia): This resort in Bora Bora collaborates with local marine conservation organizations to protect coral reefs. They conduct coral monitoring surveys, implement sustainable tourism practices, and support community-based conservation projects.

Le Taha'a by Pearl Resorts: The only fully Polynesian-owned hotel collection, Pearl Resorts of Tahiti shares its passion for our islands and their lifestyle. Their environmental charter is shared by all its properties and mindful of the specificities of each archipelago. Espace Bleu, Le Bora Bora and Le Taha'a are home to coral nurseries that contribute to the health of their lagoons.

Many other properties around the world also participate in similar initiatives, often in collaboration with local conservation organizations, research institutions, and government agencies.