Draft:Hayes Type II Oil Lamps

Hayes type II oil lamp is a classification of oil lamp used in Late Antiquity. They appear in the archaeological records throughout the Western Roman Empire, and especially in modern-day Tunisia, Croatia, and Italy. Hayes type II oil lamps were used in monasteries by wealthy Christian individuals. These oil lamps serve as a case study on how the growth of Christianity took place during late antiquity

Description and Prevalence
Hayes type II oil lamp, also known as Atlante X oil lamps, was a specific type of ceramic vessel that held a flame. It required a wix which could be made of many different materials such as papyrus, mullein, and often had chemicals such as sulfur inside of it. Oils from the lycinia olive and the gullnut are commonly used as fuel. The Hayes type II lamp is a successor of the Hayes type I lamp, or the Atlante VIII lamp, which is slightly darker in color and found more in the Eastern region of Slavania in the 4th century. Hayes type II lamps are found in generally the same region, only slightly more to the West. Both type I and type II oil lamps were part of a large trade system from Carthage, where they were produced. The most notable difference between these two classifications is the number of Christian symbols found in the Hayes type II lamps. Most Hayes type II lamps have a Chi Rho, a cross, or a depiction of Jesus stamped onto them. Oil lamps like these were prominent throughout Roman society for centuries leading up to the Hayes type II.

Notably, there was a declining presence of oil during antiquity, making the utilization of these lamps more scarce in the 7th Century particularly. North Africa is known by many historians to have been a heavy grain exporter, but they also supplied large amounts of olive oil among their exports. Much of it was sold to the Roman West where it was in need. Therefore, these lamps were likely not used by peasants as they didn’t have the means to collect all the materials necessary to use the lamp, including wicks, constant fuel, and the purchase of the lamp itself. The evidence shows that Christians were the ones purchasing and using these lamps. An obvious indicator of this is the symbols on the lamps themselves. Additionally, documentation of Christians using these lamps is in The Letters of Cassiodorus. Cassiodorus was a wealthy statesman named Pratricate in the 6th century, and he documents the constant tending of ornately constructed lamps in his monastery. Cassiodorus’ status, and the high cost of purchasing and maintaining one of these lamps amidst a diminishing olive oil supply, historians indicate that the small Christian population in the 5th and 6th centuries were of a wealthy high-social class. However, regardless of the high social status and economic wealth that Christians had in the 5th and 6th centuries, the Hayes type II oil lamps were no longer produced in the 7th century.

Another possible explanation could be that the regions where the lamps were used became increasingly isolated. Which on a larger notion, would indicate that there was a decrease in large-scale trade under Christianity. But, there were wheel oil lamps made in Asia Minor that were found throughout Europe into the 19th century. Moreover, changes from Hayes oil lamps can be explained by new technological advancements within monasteries.

Advancements in technology within Monasteries
There is a common theme across sources as to why oil lamps were used in monasteries. Many documents highlight the use of light in bookkeeping, like in The Letters of Cassiodorus. Through understanding the new forms of lighting in monasteries, one can recognize technological advances were responsible for the decline of these oil lamps. In later centuries, we find artistic work depicting bookkeeping under lights from candles or lanterns. Although the items are different, the functional use of light remains the same. We are led to ask what caused the technological change of lamps to candles and hanging lamps in Christian locations. Archaeological evidence shows an increase in glass lamps, candlesticks, and hanging lamps around the same time. These alternative forms of light could use local fuel like animal fat and had a slower burn rate. Candles had been around for centuries. But the candlesticks and lanterns found during the sixth and seventh century prior to the Hayes type II lamps are incredibly ornate and decorative. Additionally, they sat higher, which produced less of an overcasting shadow on books. The transparent glass lamps and chandeliers from this time also cast fewer shadows. In general, the artistic metallurgy paired with the more functional design of these new forms of light highlights technological advances within late antiquity monasteries.

Historiography
The Hayes lamps were a prominent Roman style lamp produced for centuries. It is profound to have Christian symbols on an item clearly identified as Roman because there is a common perception that Christianity was accepted after the Roman Empire fell. This lamp provides a contradiction to those who believe that Christianity caused the downfall of Rome. Those who argue this viewpoint discuss Constantinople establishing Christianity in the West. Moreover, the introduction of Christianity into the Roman Empire and the rise of monasteries is seen as a negative movement separating itself from the Roman Empire of the past.

The other viewpoint of Western Rome in late antiquity is that Rome didn’t fall and continued in the West. They describe Christianity slowly developing in a top-down motion that didn’t take grasp as a mainstream belief until the end of the late antiquity period. Additionally, Historians under this viewpoint would provide sources on how Christians along with other invading migrants, called themselves Roman for centuries.

The Oil Lamps Metaphorical Purpose
The connection of light to the church is not only functional but metaphorical. As Christianity grew, so did the church's connection to light. Writings from the bishops and popes of the 4th through 6th centuries all commonly use light, often by candle or lamp, to describe the enlightenment of Christ or his presence. It seems the earlier forms of these metaphors appear in literature specifically. But in later centuries, we see artwork with hanging lamps and candles that often signify symbolism as well. The significance of these metaphors likely infiltrated the masses and the rituals of Christianity. These practices are still prevalent today and can be dated back to late antiquity. The Beneventan text of the Exultet illustrates the worship of people as they gather around the candle. Even earlier examples by Cipro of Alexandria discuss a Candlemass for the Hypaponte feast in the 5th century. Notably, the date of this source is questionable; however, considering context indicated it was likely edited by a later date in late antiquity. The symbolism of light is still present in today’s Christian beliefs. Candlelight masses are common across many denominations. Catholicism uses a lantern to signify Jesus‘s presence in a tabernacle. Advent wreaths count down the weeks until Jesus’s birth. And even the same light-symbolizing scriptures that were written during late antiquity are studied and followed today.

Other Lamps From the 5th - 8th Century
Other lamps that existed in the larger regions of the Eastern and Western Empires include Ovoid Lamps and Slipper lamps. There is a wide variety within these two categories. The Ovoid Lamps have a similarity in style to the Roman Lamps. They have a circular bowl shape with an extended nozzle from the main body and a center-filling hole in the center. These were continuously popular oil lamps in the Eastern Empire and areas of Asia Minor. The Slipper Lamps are a local production in the West and Salvania. They had a similar design to the Hayes lamps but often weren’t as uniform and were made of the same slip clay. They also had a wide variety of designs and symbols dependent on their local areas. Notably, this category of Slipper Lamps includes Wheel Lamps that follow the prominent Hayes Types II Lamps.