Draft:Similarities Between Mythological Creatures in Chinese and Japanese Mythology

The Similarities Between Mythological Creatures in Chinese and Japanese Mythology is a specific analysis of comparative mythology.

Cross-cultural exchanges between Japan and China have led to the influences of Chinese mythology on Japanese mythology. Their cross-cultural exchanges can be traced back to the Book of Han, which was written in the first century CE. Some scholars argue that their cross-cultural exchanges can be traced further back, but most claims are not verifiable. Many of these myths contain animal motifs, many of which are shared in Chinese and Japanese mythology.

Japan vs China interpretations of these “strange monsters”
妖怪 (Mandarin: yāoguài; Japanese: yōkai) is translated as “strange monsters.” It is unclear when the first verbal concept of yaoguai was created in China, but the first textual appearances of it are believed to be from twelfth-century B.C.E. The history of yōkai in Japan can be traced back to the 8th century but was not often visually represented until Japan’s medieval period (1185-1600 CE). During the Tokugawa or Edo period, artists started to create new Japanese original yōkai. Some Japanese religions, such as the Shinto religion, use concepts of yōkai and Chinese religions, such as Daoism, also have depictions of yaoguai.

Maritime Trade and Example of Yokai
During the Tang and Song dynasties, China entered maritime trade and created large junk ships. Chinese textiles like silk were no longer in high demand and ceramics like porcelain were more often traded via maritime trade. Although China was exchanging goods with other countries, in the process of this they were also exchanging ideas such as mythology. The legend of a type of yaoguai known as the nine-tailed fox is believed to have spread to Japan during the Tang dynasty. The exchange of mythology in East Asia and the influence of Chinese yaoguai on Japanese mythology illustrate how, unlike the misconceptions about China being an “isolated” nation, China has actually always been interacting with foreign countries.

The nine-tailed fox can be seen with many other animals around 西王母 (Mandarin: xīwángmǔ) Queen Mother of the West; a goddess with the ability to control life and death, creation and destruction.

Fox
As a spiritual beast spread to Japan, South Korea and other places, the nine-tailed fox has a rather complicated identity, meaning and cultural background. Starting from the legend of the fox in the pre-Qin era, the transformation from auspicious beasts to monsters, the fusion of Japanese and local mythology, etc. finally created the completion of the legendary image of the white-faced golden-haired nine-tailed fox.

The Initial Formation of the Image:
The earliest description of the nine-tailed fox in Chinese culture can be traced back to the Classic of Mountains and Seas in the pre-Qin period. This ancient book contains the rich imagination of our ancestors and covers many subjects, especially monsters.

In Classic of Mountains and Seas Chapter 1: Classic of the Mountains - South (《山海经·南山经》), the nine-tailed fox was mentioned like this:"There is a monster in the mountains. Its shape is very similar to that of a fox, but it has nine tails. Its sound is like a baby crying. This beast can eat people. If people eat its meat, they will not be attacked by the poisonous gas."Youyang Miscellaneous Morsels (《酉阳杂俎》) is a collection of notes and novels written by Duan Chengshi, a naturalist of the Tang Dynasty. Similar to the Classic of Mountains and Seas, it also contains a lot of content about monster legends. Among them, the image of a white-faced golden-haired fox who can use magic is depicted.

In Taoism, there is the so-called "Tianhu Biexingfa". It is said that the sky fox has nine tails and golden hair. It serves in the Sun Palace and Moon Palace. It has talismans, can pray to gods to avoid disasters, and can understand the changes of yin and yang.

In the original Chinese mythology, fox spirits were usually monsters belonging to one race or type. Up to this point, the nine-tailed fox, or sky fox, is was represented as neutral or auspicious. They can bring protection or good luck to humans, which is very different from the monster image of the nine-tailed fox in later generations.

Later Versions of Fox Tales:
During the interchange period between the Tang and Song dynasties, the symbolic meaning of the nine-tailed fox, or fox fairy or fox demon, underwent a transformation. The auspicious beasts that used to be able to eliminate disasters have now become monsters that confuse humans.

In Search of the Supernatural (《搜神记》) is a book about gods and ghosts collected and written by Qian Bao in the Jin Dynasty. It is a representative of the ghost novels in the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties. It is also a work that reflects legends, folklore, monsters, etc. It contains the prototypes of many myths and legends that have experienced development in later generations, and the fox that can turn into a woman after a thousand years of age is one of them. It is said in its 12th volume that “A fox starts to become a beautiful woman at the age of 1,000.”

Taiping Guangji is a collection of novels compiled by the Song Dynasty, and most of them include novels from the Tang Dynasty. In it, the records of foxes taking the form of humans: in volume 447, it cites Xuan Zhong Ji that “A fox can transform into a woman at the age of fifty. A hundred-year-old one becomes a beautiful woman and a witch. Or (it can) become a man, interacting with women. (It is) able to know things thousands of miles away. A good bewitcher, making people confused and insane.”

The novel Fengshen Yanyi, written in the Ming Dynasty, created the most well-known image of the demon fox in China. A nine-tailed fox possesses Su Daji, the daughter of the Su family, and is ordered by a goddess to end the Shang Dynasty.

Local deities known as fox fairies were widespread in northern China. In fact, fox fairy (狐仙), fox demon (狐妖) and fox spirits (狐狸精) can all be synonymous. The belief in fox fairies in northern China is slightly different from the image of foxes reflected in the works mentioned above. Although fox fairies typically possess people instead of transforming into humans, both fox fairies and Chinese fox gods have the ability to bless or tempt people, as well as intelligence and magical abilities that far exceed those of ordinary animals.

The Development and Invention of the Fox Tales in Japan
According to 日本における褒姒の変身譚の受容と変容について by Wang Bei, published in Journal of Language and Culture, the earliest description of the transformation of a fox in Japanese literature can be traced back to the 13th century The Tale of the Heike, in which it is mentioned that Princess Bao Si of the Zhou Dynasty transformed into a fox.

Although it was mentioned earlier that the Japanese fox legend accepted the legend from China, the image of the fox has undergone many changes.

According to the article Kitsune: A Look into the Lasting Presence of the Fox Spirit in Japanese Culture, it is mentioned:"She is not alone, rather she is in the company of women like Meixi of the Xia dynasty, Zhao Hede of the Han dynasty, and most importantly, Daji of the Shang Dynasty. In other documents, such as the 13th century Jikkinshō (A Miscellany of Ten Maxims) and the 14th century Genpei jōsui ki, Tamamo no mae has also been associated with “the story of King Yū…[and] the evil Empress Hōji who led King Yū’s dynasty to ruin…[though] in some versions of this story, Tamamo no mae is associated not with the Chinese Empress Hōji of the Zhō Dynasty, but rather with Dakki of the Yin dynasty—another evil concubine.”"In other words, after being introduced to Japan, the images of Daji, Meixi, Baosi and other concubines who were said to be able to transform into foxes were integrated, as well as the image of Japan's Tamamo Mae. In the process, the concept of a fox in the form of a woman began to materialize and was given a name. In the development of the image of the demon fox Tamamo no. 22 in the Gakushuin Women's University Minutes - Nine-tailed Transformation and Modern Characteristics, this merged image created Kayou Fujin in Japan, which is actually not in Indian mythology. The characters exist and form a kind of trinity image."In later creations, the true identity of this fox was added as an example of a ``beautiful woman of a leaning country who misleads the king and destroys the country. '' In various works, Daki's true identity was a white-faced, golden-haired nine-tailed fox. It is thought that due to this trend, Tamamo-mae came to be regarded as a nine-tailed fox."Although the images of fox fairies or fox demons in Chinese mythology are diverse, the fox-female connection is actually quite diffuse. After being introduced to Japan, with the changes of time and the spread and evolution of texts, according to Wang, in the picture book 絵本三国妖婦伝 published in 1804, Daji, Kayou Fujin, Bao Si and Tamamo Mae formed a unified image that evolved step by step. The coherent legend of the fox is depicted as a single female figure fleeing from India to China to Japan.

History
Dragons in Chinese history dates back at least 6000 years: Shang China (14th - 11th c. BC). The most ancient Chinese texts mention dragons in divination, as embellishments on clothing, and as river deities capable of causing devastating floods through their fighting. As part of the four spiritual beings filled with Tang (Light), they were considered as omens announcing the arrival of significant individuals, particularly emperors, and representing general prosperity. However, they also signified impending death and ruin when they were seen fighting, discovered deceased, or appeared at inappropriate times or locations.

Mixture of Animals
The dragon clan was stronger than any other tribes in the battles, so they assimilated the totems of conquered tribes to contain various animal features into the dragon's form. Over time, this "dragon" transformed into a composite creature with nine distinct characteristics: A camel's head, deer horns, demon eyes, bull ears, snake neck, clam belly, carp scales, eagle claws, and tiger paws.

Symbolism
The Chinese dragons are strongly associated with rivers, water, clouds, and rain. Dragons were seen as benevolent, due to their essential role in bringing rain for agriculture, and they were simultaneously regarded as a symbol representing the imperial court. The primary role of the Chinese dragon is to bring rain, a crucial function attributed to him by mankind through various mystical methods. These include crafting clay dragon figures and laying them in water, tossing poisonous plants or tiger bones (the dragon's enemy) into their habitats, disturbing dragons with loud noises, or employing utensils embellished with dragon motifs during rain-seeking prayers. These dragons are known as the "Rain-Masters," and people offer prayers for rain in front of dragons’ dwellings.

History
The exact period of the introduction of dragon culture to Japan is not certain, but it's strongly believed to coincide with the arrival of rice cultivation. According to this theory, rice cultivation originated in the Xishuangbanna (西双版納) region bordering the southern part of China's Yunnan Province, Myanmar, and Laos, spreading through China's southern regions, Korea's southern peninsula, and reaching Japan around the 4th or 5th century BC. At this time, China was undergoing turbulent changes during the Chunqiu Era (春秋戦国時代). There was an expansion of influence by Han ethnic groups from the Yellow River (黄河) basin to the Yangtze River (長江) basin, as seen in battles between Wu (呉) and Yue (越). During this period, pressured by the Han ethnic groups, some Yue ethnic groups moved to southern China, while others migrated towards Japan. It's theorized that the dragon culture associated with rice cultivation and water deities was transmitted during this period. Following this theory, Japan's dragon culture would have a history of around 1600 years.

Mixture of Animals
Dragons have been depicted as a mixture of 8 Real + 1 Imaginary Animals. On the head usually contains features of a Camel; Horn: Dear; Eyes: Rabbit; Ears - Cow; Body: Snake; Stomach: Imaginary Giant Clam; Scales: Carp; Palm: Tiger; Nail: Hawk. It originated from China and is characterized by a long, snake-like body. In the "Wakan Sansai Zue," (和漢三才図会) cited from the "Honzo Wamyo" (本草綱目) as: "Its head is camel-like, eyes resemble those of a rabbit, ears are similar to a cow's, neck is snake-like, belly resembles a clam, scales are like those of a carp, claws resemble those of an eagle, and palms are similar to a tiger's" (If we add horns similar to a deer's, it's known as the "Nine Resemblances of a Dragon" theory).

Symbolism
In Japan, it is believed to ward off fires due to its association with water. Additionally, it's often linked to natural disasters. Because it tends to be combined with clouds or thunderclouds, there was a belief that it had the power to bring rain.

The Dragon King
In Chinese mythology, Longwang, often referred to as the "Dragon King" (龙王), reigns supreme over the seas, commanding not only dragons but also sea creatures, the oceans, and even the weather. Despite being known for having a temper, Longwang is revered as a representation of good luck and serves as the mythological embodiment of the yang principle. He is especially popular among Chinese communities living along the coastlines.

Origin
The Four Dragon Kings are considered as the brothers of the Dragon King (龙王). In Chinese mythology, the Four Dragons, along with their sibling Longwang, were a brotherhood of gods, overseeing the Earth's oceans and rivers. The Four Dragon Kings were partnered with another set of four freshwater dragons in charge of rivers, springs, and lakes; they collectively governed all the planet's weather and water—with Longwang leading the way.

Features of the Four
1. Ao Guang (敖廣), also recognized as the Azure Dragon or Blue-Green Dragon, serves as the Dragon King of the East China Sea. He embodies the essence of spring and corresponds to the wood element.

2. Ao Qin (敖欽), governing the South China Sea, is also referred to as the Red Dragon. He represents the essence of summer and aligns with the fire element.

3. Ao Shun (敖順), known as the Black Dragon or Dark Dragon, rules over the North China Sea or Lake Baikal. He embodies the essence of winter and corresponds to the water element.

4. Ao Run (敖閏), also acknowledged as the White Dragon and the guardian of Lake Qinghai in the West, symbolizes the essence of autumn and corresponds to the metal element.

Origin
八岐大蛇 (Yamata No Orochi) appears in two Japanese historical texts: Nihon Shoki (日本書紀) and Kojiki (古事記).

Nihon Shoki is one of the oldest historical texts which was compiled by order of the Emperor at that time, written in 720. It has 30 volumes in total, and the first and second volumes talk about mythology, and history and historical events of successive emperors in chronological order in the third to thirtieth volumes of Nihon Shoki.

Kojiki is one of the oldest Mythological texts and has 3 volumes in total. The first volume's mythological section recounts the beginning of heaven and earth, the birth of Amaterasu Omikami, the earthly rule of Okuninushi no Kami, the transfer of the earthly realm to Amaterasu (known as the "Transfer of the Land"), and the descent of Amaterasu's grandson, Ninigi-no-Mikoto, to the earth, leading up to the birth of Emperor Jinmu, Ninigi's great-grandson. The middle volume covers from the first Emperor Jinmu to Emperor Ojin, while the last volume narrates the genealogy from Emperor Nintoku to Empress Suiko, portraying the story of the human world during that period.

Story Line
When Susano'o-no-Mikoto arrived at the Hino River in Izumo Province, there was a young woman crying with her elderly parents. The daughter's name was Kushinada-hime. Her parents were Ooyamatsumi-no-Kami's children, named: Ashinazuchi and Tenazuchi.

When Mikoto asked for the reason why they were crying, Ashinazuchi told him a story. Deep in the mountain, there is an eight-headed serpent called Yamata-no-Orochi, which comes out once a year and devours one maiden from their village. Because of this serpent, out of the eight daughters Ashinazuchi had, only Kushinada-hime remained. The time approached for the serpent to come out to eat another maiden, and Susano’o decided to exterminate the serpent.

He first built a fence around the house with eight entrances, placing large sake (alcohol)-filled vessels behind each entrance. Soon, it suddenly started getting dark, and with eerie sounds, the serpent with eight heads glared with eerie, bright red eyes, appeared. The serpent, upon seeing the sake, eagerly started drinking from the vessels. As Susano'o quietly approached, he swung his sword toward the serpent. At that moment, the serpent noticed and lunged at Susano'o. Yet, Susano'o continued attacking the serpent, one after the other.

When he finally cut off the tail, a splendid sword emerged. After the death of the serpent, peace returned to the land of Izumo.

1. Differences in the number of toes:
In ancient China, it was risky to mistakenly add an extra toe to depictions of dragons in artwork, as the five-toed dragon symbolized the imperial family. Lower-status individuals faced potential imperial punishment if they adorned their clothing or belongings with a five-toed dragon. Consequently, four-toed dragons were more prevalent in Chinese art, and the presence of a five-toed dragon often signaled that a piece was intended for the royal families. In Japan, artists commonly depicted dragons with three toes, despite the creature's symbolic association with imperial power, thus the number of toes on a Japanese dragon is unrelated to its status.

2. Similarities in seeing snakes as smaller versions of dragons:
In Japanese mythology, snakes are depicted as smaller versions of dragons, and today, many people believe that they are messengers of dragons. In Chinese culture, snakes are often referred to as miniature representations of dragons. There's a prevailing belief that the imagery of dragons originated from snakes. Despite the possibility of dragons having features like horse heads, deer antlers, fish scales, and eagle claws, their bodies consistently resemble that of a serpent.

3. Differences in perspectives on the dragons:
In Chinese culture, the emperors and drawings had stronger associations than the Japanese ones. The emperors were not just referred to as dragons or likened to them; at times, they were even believed to be descendants of dragons or have dragons serving them. These dragons had the ability to soar into the sky, riding on winds and clouds, or descend into the deepest wells. Their transformations were boundless; they could shrink to the size of silkworms or expand to cover the entire world. They possessed wisdom surpassing that of any other creature and wielded immense blessing power. Besides these concepts that made them beloved subjects for poets and artists, numerous simpler beliefs existed among the common people since ancient times.

On the other hand, Japanese dragons were more worshiped as gods, rather than being strongly associated with emperors. In Japan, while influenced by China, dragons are often revered as deified forms of snakes, which are symbolic representations of water deities. Due to their character as water deities, they are associated with agricultural production, linked with thunder gods among fishing communities, rituals honoring dragon gods—worshiping sea gods and gods of the Dragon Palace for abundant catches—are widely conducted, as dragons were strongly associated with water and weather.

The Chinese Fenghuang
In Chinese ancient texts, the Fenghuang (凤凰) was described as a “bird with a cock’s head, a snake’s neck, a swallow’s chin, a tortoise’s back, and a fish’s tail.” It has also been described to possess five colors. One source also claims that the Fenghuang resembles a golden pheasant, a pheasant that is native only to China. It was also described as 6 feet tall. The name "Fenghuang” comes from a male bird “feng” and the female bird “huang” put together. The Chinese Fenghuang is also heavily associated with the empress or queen.

While the Fenghuang was first described and widely known as a “Chinese phoenix,” it is regarded as a completely different entity from the Western phoenixes.

Fenghuang in Chinese Mythology
In Chinese mythology, fenghuang are associated with beautiful singing and dancing. Linglun was a mythological hero who invented and created many musical instruments. It was said that he took twelve pieces of bamboo and blew into them to imitate a fenghuang’s singing. This instrument became known as the lü pipes.

Di Jun, one of the supreme gods in Chinese mythology, was particularly known for his friendship with fenghuang. In the wilderness, Di Jun found these “five-colored birds” dancing “in-pairs.” He wished to go down to the earth and make friends with them. These fenghuang looked after his two altars that existed on Earth. This myth was collected from chapter 14 of Shanhaijing.

When Houji died and his body was buried in the wilderness of Duguang, a plentiful harvest of rice grew naturally. His death also was accompanied by a singing male fenghuang with a dancing female fenghuang.

Kunlun Mountain was a significant mythological place in Chinese mythology. It was said that to the west of Kunlun Mountain were fenghuang that wore snakes on their bodies.

Shaohao, another supreme god in Chinese mythology, was also associated with fenghuang during his birth. According to myth, When Huang’e gave birth to Shaohao, five colorful fenghuang came into his yard, signifying the birth of a great heavenly emperor. Phoenixes also appear when Shaohao founded his state in Qiongshan.

The Japanese Ho-o
The Ho-o, inspired by the Chinese Fenghuang, is believed to have been brought to Japan from China during the Asuka period. Like the Chinese Fenghuang, the Ho-o are typically favorable omens for new beginnings and successful reign. Similar to the Fenghuang's representation of the empress, Ho-os were creatures associated with the Japanese imperial family, particularly the empress. They are also known to be two to three times smaller than the Chinese fenghuang.

Ho-o in Japanese Mythology
One myth tells of a clever woman named Saijosen. Saijosen was engaged in embroidery until an old man came up to her and requested her to embroider a pair of Ho-o on a piece of cloth. When Saijosen was done with her embroidery, the old man closed his eyes and pointed at the pair of Ho-o, springing to life. Saijosen and the old man mounted the birds and soared off into the sky.

Another myth noted that when the first Japanese emperor was heading for war, the phoenix appeared before him, halting his advance. The Ho-o sang him a beautiful song, which ultimately led the emperor to triumph in the war.