Fa (philosophy)

Fa is a concept in Chinese philosophy that concerns aspects of ethics, logic, and law. It can be translated as 'law' in some contexts, but more often as 'model' or 'standard'. First gaining importance in the Mohist school of thought, the concept was principally elaborated in Legalism. In Han Fei's philosophy, the king is the sole source of fa ('law'), taught to the common people so that there would be a harmonious society free of chance occurrences, disorder, and "appeal to privilege". High officials were not to be held above the fa ('law' or 'protocol'), nor were they allowed to independently create their own fa, uniting both executive fiat and rule of law.

Xunzi, whose work would ultimately be foundational to Confucian philosophy during the Han dynasty, also took up fa, suggesting that it could only be properly assessed by the Confucian sage (聖; shèng), and that the most important fa were the very rituals that Mozi had ridiculed for their ostentatious waste and lack of benefit for the people at large.

Mohism and the School of Names
The concept of fa first gained importance in the Mohist school of thought. To Mozi, a standard must stand "three tests" in order to determine its efficacy and morality. The first of these tests was its origin; if the standard had precedence in the actions or thought of the mythological sage kings of the Xia dynasty whose examples are frequently cited in classical Chinese philosophy. The second test was one of validity; does the model stand up to evidence in the estimation of the people? The third and final test was one of applicability; this final one is a utilitarian estimation of the net good that, if implemented, the standard would have on both the people and the state.

The third test speaks to the fact that to the Mohists, a fa was not simply an abstract model, but an active tool. The real-world use and practical application of fa were vital. Yet fa as models were also used in later Mohist logic as principles used in deductive reasoning. As classical Chinese philosophical logic was based on analogy rather than syllogism, fa were used as benchmarks to determine the validity of logical claims through comparison. There were three fa in particular that were used by these later Mohists (or "Logicians") to assess such claims, which were mentioned earlier. The first was considered a "root" standard, a concern for precedence and origin. The second, a "source", a concern for empiricism. The third, a "use", a concern for the consequence and pragmatic utility of a standard. These three fa were used by the Mohists to both promote social welfare and denounce ostentation or wasteful spending.

Mohist and Confucian fa
[[File:CMOC Treasures of Ancient China exhibit - stone slab with twelve small seal characters.jpg|thumbnail|Small seal scripts were standardized by [[Li Si]] after the First Emperor of China gained control of the country, evolving from the larger seal scripts of previous dynasties.

The 12 characters on this slab of floor brick affirm that it is an auspicious moment for the First Emperor to ascend the throne, as the country is united and no men will be dying along the road.]] Described with reference to the square, compass or plumb-line, Mozi used fa in the sense of models and standards for copy and imitation in action. As in Confucianism, Mozi's ruler is intended to act as the fa (or example) for the nobles and officials. From this, the concept of fa develops towards political technique.

Illustrated by the scale, grain-leveler and ink and line, together with a benevolent heart, Mencius's ruler will not achieve effective results without fa. A late contemporary of Shen Buhai and Shang Yang, Mencius's fa more broadly represents models, exemplars and names. Amongst other categories, as including techniques of the heart-mind, Mencius's fa includes more specific examples of statistics such as temperatures, volumes, consistencies, weights, sizes, densities, distances, and quantities.

Xunzi's notion of fa arguably derives from Confucian li as applied to the regulation of human behavior. The Great Appendix or Ten Wings of the Book of Changes, added by Confucian scholars during the Western Han dynasty, defines fa as "to institute something so that we can use it."

Shi (situational authority)
The concept of Shi can be found in the Book of Lord Shang, Shen Dao and the Han Feizi, which has a chapter on Shen Dao. Based on passages in the Han Feizi, Vitali Rubin essentially took it as fact that the Han Feizi considered shi to interchangeably related to the fa concept. Unfortunately, Rubin does not go into detail on the relation, and his theory may not been reiterated modernly.