Folklore, legends and myths in Dombey and Son

Dombey and Son, published in 1848, draws heavily from popular literature inspired by legendary folklore, contemporary melodramas and traditional pantomime. It also incorporates many songs, particularly those celebrating the maritime world, and, to a lesser extent, some fairy tales and ancient myths like Argus or the Cyclops.

All of these influences are stripped of their burlesque or solemn themes and instead enriched with a moral and spiritual depth. However, they still maintain their original structures with characters destined to face trials, potential deaths, and opportunities for rebirth. This aligns well with the novel's theme of punishing the wicked, subtly rewarding the virtuous, and redeeming the protagonist; Mr. Dombey. Through a journey of self-reflection and the trials imposed by fate, the character ultimately confronts his own flaws and finds a path toward enlightenment.

The serious aspects of the novel often take on a playful tone, allowing Dickens to infuse elements of comedy and satire, as evidenced. This is exemplified by the diverse cast of characters who become subjects of his wit and criticism.

Popular stories
Dickens was often said to remain close with the people from whom he came; he frequented the streets of London and Chatham and knew all of the local peddlers. A well-known example of this is his friendship with the ballad seller Silas Wegg. He often collaborated with a small theatre troupe composed mainly of his family members and a few privileged friends to stage pantomimes and playlets performed by travelling actors or sometimes clowns.

Legend of Dick Whittington
As Dickens noted in his correspondence, the relationships between the main characters and the accompanying imagery stem from the legend of Dick Whittington, which was popularized in modern theatre.

The characters of Susan Nipper and Walter Gay are inspired by two contemporary plays, Black-Eyes Susan from 1829 by Douglas Jerrold, and Dick Whittington and His Cat by Albert Smith respectively. The legend of Dick Whittington, who became Lord Mayor of London, date back to the 17th century. Dick Whittington and his Cat was performed around the time the idea for Dombey and Son was germinating. Albert Smith adds some characters of his own design to the well-known legend Namely, a fierce cook reminiscent of Susan Nipper and an ambitious hypocrite who, like Carker, gains the trust of his boss, Mr. Fitzwarren, to better rob him and get rid of an unwanted apprentice who is in love with the house's daughter whom he covets.

Walter Gay is portrayed as "a counterpoint to Dick Whittington" and although direct references are infrequent, they are strategically placed in his journey. Similar to his prototype, he is an orphan navigating the business world with optimism but being met with only persecution and conspiracy in return. However, the novel diverges from the legend as Dickens’ protagonist ventures to sea and weds Florence, whereas, in Smith's adaptation, it is his cat that Dick sends off to sea while he continues as a perpetual victim of persecution. The only solace that he finds is in the church bells of Bow, which announce the cat's success in eliminating a kingdom's rats and amassing a fortune.

Dombey strongly resembles Fitzwarren, whose mercantile obsession leads him to neglect his family. Florence takes after her ancestor Alice, who, like her, finds friendship with Susan Nipper, and seeks comfort from the cantankerous maid of the household. Furthermore, in Dombey and Son, Solomon Gills briefly alludes to the famous Bow bells, and even the rats return "with a reversed role," fleeing as soon as danger looms, their disappearance sealing Dombey's downfall. The cat resurfaces in Carker, upon whom feline imagery accumulates.

Jolly Jack Tar Stereotype
Jack Tar (Jacktar, Jack-tar, or simply Tar) originally referred to sailors in the Merchant Navy or the Royal Navy, particularly during the height of the British Empire's expansion and later came to identify all seafaring people. By extension, Jolly Jack Tar is a sea shanty that portrays a confident young aspirant who overcomes incredible challenges, marries the admiral's daughter, and concludes his adventurous tale with a gloriously patriotic ending.

Dombey and Son features numerous nautical references that stem from the small world of "The Wooden Midshipman," many of which concern Walter Gay. Solomon Gills's shop is described as an unsinkable ship navigating the currents of the City, with the small back parlor serving as the captain's quarters. Just like the sign above the entrance gangway, Dickens portrays Walter Gay as "the most wooden of midshipmen." The name "Gay," which is closely linked to Susan Nipper in the early chapters, brings to mind John Gay, the author, and also the popular sea shanty he composed his popular sea shanty "Sweet William's Farewell to Black-Eyed Susan" (1720). Additionally, it hints at a melodrama by Douglas Jerrold that was particularly well-received during that era.

Gay's ballad takes the form of a dramatic duet between William, a generous and loyal foresail sailor, and Susan, the innocent young girl he leaves behind as duty calls. Many traditional genre clichés are found here, such as the contrast between faithful love and the changing sea, the union between the delicate and sensitive young lady and the gruff sailor, and finally, the idea that love triumphs over adversity. Jerrold's melodrama, on the other hand, emphasizes the humility of the bride's domestic life and the unjust harshness of the discipline suffered by the sailor. Most of the characters portrayed in the melodrama, as well as their relationships, are found in the novel: like the merchant Doggrass, Dombey reduces human relationships to market shares, drives away his daughter, and agrees to exile the hero to distant lands; both end up in an abyss of solitude. In contrast, the novel saves the lost merchant through his child and attributes Walter's modest success solely to his virtues, the relationship he forms with Florence ultimately replacing the fallen father in the City on firm spiritual foundations. Other traits, though often adapted, bring Dombey and Son closer to the stereotypes of nautical melodrama. Thus, Susan Nipper marries Mr. Toots, who resembles the Gnatbrain from the fable; Florence somewhat resembles Dolly Mayflower, with her flowery name and cheerful demeanour. As for Walter Gay, he is surrounded by his "crew," Solomon Gills and Captain Cuttle, who, with their joyful spontaneity, recall the chorus of sailors from tradition. Moreover, Cuttle's enthusiastic incoherence alone suffices with his verbal outbursts extracted from the Book of Common Prayer or the repertoire of sea shanties stored in his fertile brain.

Theatrical Cliché Reformulated into Myth
In Dombey and Son, Dickens explores the contrast between the sea and land, sailors and landlubbers, humanity and materialism. In the initial chapters, the Dombey house, anchored to the ground but commercially dependent on the waves, stands in opposition to Solomon Gills's shop, which is entirely oriented towards the sea but situated amidst the bustling market. Metaphorically, however, the former, a conqueror, looking to the future, may seem invincible but is destined to fail, while the latter, fragile and obsolete, looking to the past, becomes a resilient vessel of the human spirit navigating above the turmoils of commercial life. Materialistic values are subject to the whims of fortune and change, "tethered" to the City or fashionable locales like the spa town of Leamington, the seaside resort of Brighton, the resort of Bath, or the dangerous Paris. In contrast, human solidarity belongs to those whom the navigation instruments of life lead towards prudence, humility, and altruism, or to those who, cast upon the reefs, discover refuge in what appears to be an apparent desert but is an oasis of salvation and kindness. Characters like Sol, Cuttle, Flo, Walter, Susan, Toots, and even Mr. Dombey, eventually in the journey find their way to the island of compassion. Therefore, to varying degrees, the sea serves as a permanent backdrop in the novel, with its symbolic connotations. John Hillis-Miller notes: “The sea of death [...] is the authentic symbol of a nonhuman power whose chief characteristics are reconciliation and continuity. [...] The symbol of that realm beyond this earth where [...] the reciprocity of love will be possible.”

Hence, the death of the first Mrs. Dombey is described as a shipwreck, but the dying woman is connected to hope by "the light she clings to," the love of her daughter Florence. Similarly, the passing of Little Paul at the age of nine is viewed by Mr. Dombey as the loss of his ship "The Heir Son," foreshadowing the family's financial downfall. For other characters, it symbolizes a journey to the afterlife on a sea of love that the young boy understood so deeply, a language shared only by him and perhaps the eccentric old man from Brighton Beach. Florence also perceives a similar message in the waves during her honeymoon trip, and even Sol Gills concludes, "Some of our lost ships [of his nautical instruments], freighted with gold, have come home, truly.”

Almost all characters embark on a sort of voyage on the waves and then return to shore, creating a stark contrast: the materialists, such as Dombey, Carker, Alice Marwood, and Edith Granger, inevitably face disaster, humiliation, or death. On the other hand, the humanists, firmly grounded, find relative but happy prosperity as they have constantly allied themselves with authentic moral forces. Thus, Dickens skillfully incorporates nautical legend and popular melodrama into his narrative. While Albert Smith and Douglas Jerrold sought to create burlesque parodies from them, Dickens transformed them into a parable rich in symbolism and mythical significance without altering the core action.

Fairy Tales and Myths
John Forster spoke, regarding Dombey and Son, of a "fanciful rendering of reality," meaning "imaginative," as the adjective "fanciful" he uses suggests. Some critics call Dickens's novels realistic fairy tales. Forster also noted, about his friend's Christmas stories, that "no one felt a more intense affection than [him] for nursery rhymes and tales, and that he felt a secret delight in thinking that he conferred on them a nobler status by his art."

Fairy Tales
Dickens primarily draws upon popular culture, including tales, ballads, and songs. In "The Christmas Tree," an autobiographical narrative that Simon Callow finds "almost Proustian," Dickens writes, "Little Red Riding Hood was my first love. I feel that, if I could have married her, I would have known perfect happiness." This confession interests Bruno Bettelheim, who, in The Uses of Enchantment, comments: "Even when world-famous, Dickens acknowledged the deep formative impact that the wondrous figures and events of fairy tales had had on him and his creative genius [...] Dickens understood that the imagery of fairy tales helps children better than anything else in [...] achieving a more mature consciousness to civilize the chaotic pressures of their unconscious." Florence, as previously mentioned, seems like a Cinderella trapped in her father's rigid castle. According to Bruno Bettelheim, the final part of the novel subtly alludes to the famous slipper of the tale, in the description, in chapter 57, "their wedding morning." Florence and Walter walk to the church, taking first the "quietest streets." The narrator portrays their happiness by saying, "Not even during their ancient childish stroll were they farther from the surrounding world. The feet of the children of yesteryear did not tread on the ground as wonderful as the one they tread on today." Bruno Bettelheim discerns here, through the evocation of steps and feet, an echo that he considers revealing, although his psychoanalytic interpretations may be debatable.

In any case, many places and characters often embody fairy tale archetypes. For instance, Mrs. Pipchin lives in an "ogress's castle," with smells of musty earth, with creeping insects, some hairy and others bristling with spikes. The plant life in this setting seems to come alive with protrusions that blur the line between stems and spiders. The landlady herself, always dressed in black, possesses a theriomorphic aura, emitting a "croaking" sound akin to a toad and possessing piercing eyes like those of a serpent. On the other hand, "Good Mrs. Brown," is described as unattractive and, like Mrs. Pipchin, "all black;" her arms are covered with skins, and she resembles a witch, muttering unintelligible abracadabras amidst a chaotic heap of rags, bones, and ashes. She lurks in the shadows like a tigress, her eyes ablaze with fire, her crooked fingers tense before she pounces, grabs, and pulls her prey (Florence) by the hair.

Mr. Dombey's mansion, on the other hand, holds an ever-awake Sleeping Beauty, immersed in a temporal hypostasis, without expectation of being rescued by a Prince Charming. The narrator describes the place using litotes to deny any miraculous connection, subtly alluding to it as: "[...] No magical abode from a wonderful story" or "There were not the two dragons as sentinels [...] as often in legends, stationed there to watch over the imprisoned innocence."

Finally, contrary to traditional interpretations that portray this character as a premature prophet, Little Paul has sometimes been viewed as a changeling, an infant or young child abandoned by fairies. Anne Chassagnol describes him as a malformed being with mental retardation and the aftermath of serious illnesses, unexplained psychic disorders, indicating that he is a victim, as per Victorian imagination, of a malevolent fairy. She recalls that it was not until 1866 that a psychiatrist, John Langdon Down, scientifically proved the source of these ailments.

Archetypes and Myths
Lucien Pothet explains that "The continuity of myth-legend-epic-modern literature has been highlighted many times [...] Let us simply recall that mythical archetypes served in a certain way in the great modern novels. The trials that a character in a novel must overcome have their model in the adventures of the mythical Hero. Secularized, degraded, camouflaged, these myths and mythic images are found everywhere: one only needs to recognize them."

Dombey and Son contains numerous allusions to archetypes and myths, although they are often subtly reshaped by Dickens’ imagination before being woven into the fabric of the novel. As a result, most of the key characters are symbiotically associated with elemental and cosmic forces.

The most striking example is Little Paul conversing with the waves and comprehending their language; Florence also symbolizes water, as Julian Moynahan points out, even if only through "the abundance of her tears." In the chapter describing Mr. Dombey's transformation, it is revealed that "at last, [he] gauges the importance of the liquid element, the sea, the river, and the tears, and this awareness amounts to an unconditional surrender." Up to this point, he has been associated with stone, like Mrs. Pipchin, a woman characterized by chalk and flint, making him a chthonic figure, almost subterranean, living where everything withers and dies for lack of light, hence the frequent references to the mire and mold in his home.

Dickens extensively employs the pathetic fallacy to draw parallels between humans and the cosmos. Dombey and Son unfolds, except at its end, like a perpetual November, characterized by cold, dampness, greyness, and dustiness, with darkness looming over everything and everyone before engulfing them: Dawn is described as "shivering," rain as "melancholic," drops as "weary," the wind as "languishing and moaning with pain and sorrow," while the trees "shiver with fear." In Dombey's case, chandeliers and candelabras are depicted as shedding a "monstrous tear."

In return, beings transform into animals, to such an extent that, as Michael G. Gilmour has analyzed, the novel's bestiary transcends mere comic irony. Moreover, it borrows much from ancient mythology and the Bible. For instance, Blimber becomes an indecipherable sphinx, as unyielding as the stone of the Egyptian lion. Carter, on the other hand, knows how to be a cat, shifting between a velvet-pawed cat and a fierce wolf, shark, or reptile. Good Mrs. Brown scuttles and pinches like a crab, yielding nothing to Major Bagstock who sports lobster eyes. Mr. Perch is given the name of a voracious fish, but he is the one who gets "hooked," while Mr. Toots remains a "chick of the coop." Florence, imprisoned and wounded, becomes a bird in a cage with broken wings, her preserved innocence likening her to a turtledove. Her father takes on the role of a bird of prey, while her guardians have the air of wild beasts. Even the railway, likened to a dragon, symbolizes the archetypal obstacle that the hero must overcome, morphing into a theriomorphic symbol spewing fire, belching black vapours, and sporting glowing red eyes in the darkness.

The novel also makes allusions to Argus and the Cyclops. It contains many references to the piercing and inquisitive eyes of evil characters: Carker's eyes, sometimes sharp as teeth, can suddenly wither enemies or rivals and emit both fire and light; Mrs. Brown's eyes shoot lightning, tracing patterns streaking through the darkness of her den. The Cyclops, with his round eye, symbolizes the spy, such as Carker, who paralyzes Commander Cuttle from afar, or Mr. Dombey himself hiding behind a door to catch what the old Mrs. Brown mumbles.

The final myth that structures the novel's framework is that of trial and rebirth, exemplified by Walter's journey. His nautical tribulations echo those, terrestrial, of John Bunyan's Pilgrim (1678) and also Mr. Dombey's moral journey. Mr. Dombey, a victim of his pride, experiences the death of his son, the trials of a loveless marriage, bankruptcy, a year-long illness, and is reborn as a new man. He becomes finally lucid about himself and aware of his criminal negligence. This pattern is inherited from many novels of the previous century, such as Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (1719). In this novel, the hero, ignorant of the signals of Providence (storms, debris, etc.), shipwrecks, plunges into despair, experiences illness and fevers, and then, after accidentally reading a passage from the Bible that recalls his situation, gradually returns to life, regains physical health, and spiritual fervour. Some spiritual autobiographies of the nineteenth century also reflect this inner pilgrimage, such as the semi-fictional works of William Hale White. The titles of his works, such as The Autobiography of Mark Rutherford and Mark Rutherford’s Deliverance express the progression of this journey.

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 * Dombey and Son