Ginevra Sforza

Ginevra Sforza (ca. 1441 – 17 May 1507) became the wife of Sante Bentivoglio and then of Giovanni II Bentivoglio, both de facto signori (or unofficial leaders, or 'lords') of Bologna. She had 18 children and served the Bentivoglio family by fulfilling the gendered role demanded of her by society.

For the past 500+ years in Bolognese historiography, Ginevra had been known as a terrible woman who destroyed her family and the city of Bologna--but after academic research was conducted about her life in 15th c. materials that had been dispersed among dozens of Italian archives and libraries, an entirely different and positive story results. Elizabeth Louise Bernhardt conducted this research into Genevra's life and published a book about her with Amsterdam University Press (released February 2023). https://www.aup.nl/en/book/9789463726849/genevra-sforza-and-the-bentivoglio

Because Ginevra signed her name in her own hand as "Genevra," Bernhardt uses the "Genevra" form of the spelling of her name in the manuscript, and this divergent spelling helps distinguish the historical 'Genevra' from the fictitious 'Ginevra' character that had been created from legends told about her posthumously.

The chapters of Bernhardt's book are: Introduction; 1. Genevra Sforza de' Bentivoglio: Lost and Found in Renaissance Italy (ca. 1441-1507); 2. Twice Bentivoglio: Genevra Sforza on the Marriage Market (1446-1454 and 1463-1464); 3. Genevra Sforza and Bentivoglio Family Strategies: Creating and Extending Kinship on a Massive Scale; 4. Genevra Sforza in Her Own Words: Patron and Client Relationships from Her Correspondence; 5. The Wheel of Fortune: Genevra Sforza and the Fall of the Bentivoglio (1506-1507); 6. Making and Dispelling Fake History: Genevra Sforza and Her 'Black Legends' (1506-present).

The book also includes an enormous family tree for an enormous family: around the year 1500 a document shows that 175 people lived in Palazzo Bentivoglio, the family home on the old Strà San Donato (where the Teatro Comunale on Via Zamboni stands today) in Bologna. Many of the 175 listed were family members but many more made up the Bentivoglio domestic servant staff.

Birth and first marriage
In 1441 Genevra Sforza was probably born in or near Pesaro in the Marche region of Italy to an unknown woman; Genevra was recognized however as the (illegitimate) daughter of Alessandro Sforza, the signore of Pesaro and the brother of Francesco Sforza (the duke of Milan). Genevra's half sister was Battista Sforza, wife of Federigo of Montefeltro of Urbino. Genevra also had several other siblings, both legitimate and illegitimate, and was raised with them in Pesaro at her father's home and under his guidance. Alessandro had had a falling out with his brother Francesco, and he made peace with Francesco by giving him Genevra to use in a marriage alliance of his choice. At around age 12 Genevra was thus married by proxy to Sante Bentivoglio and joined him in Bologna, where she led her adult life as the 'first lady' of the Bentivoglio family. Sante and Genevra were wed on 19 May 1454 and celebrated their marriage with a major celebrations (one chronicler claimed that the festivities were 'fir for a king'); the wedding party was supposed to begin by celebrating mass at the Basilica of San Petronio but was moved to the Church of San Giacomo (located in Bentivoglio family territory around what is now Piazza Verdi) after Cardinal Giovanni Bessarion refused to allow them to celebrate in Piazza Maggiore due to their overstepping of sumptuary legislation (Nicolosa Sanuti subsequently wrote her treaty in defense of women's rights based on this Bolognese legislation). It is also important to know that Genevra was wed to Sante with no dowry (Francesco Sforza did not have to pay one due to the difference in status between the couple since Genevra was considered a prize for Sante in Bologna; he also did not have to pay a dowry because fathers (or uncles) of illegitimate girls were not obliged to pay them according in 15th c. law).

Genevra gave her first husband two children:
 * Constanza Bentivoglio (1458–1491) who married Antonmaria Pico della Mirandola;
 * Ercole Bentivoglio (1459–1507), a condottiere, who married Barbara Torelli;
 * Sante also had an earlier illegitimate son named Antonio (1440-1449) with an unknown woman. Antonio was presumably born in or near Poppi in Ariezzo.

Second marriage
In 1463 Genevra became a widow (Sante died of tuberculosis), and a year later was forced by the duke of Milan (her uncle, Francesco Sforza) to marry a second Bentivoglio man in Bologna: Giovanni II Bentivoglio. Although many stories about an allegedly intimate relationship between Genevra and Giovanni II have been told for over 500 years (that supposedly took place while Sante was still alive) within the strong anti-Genevra tradition of Bolognese historiography, there is absolutely no 15th c. evidence that they were in love or ever had any sort of inappropriate or intimate relationship. Genevra had served as Sante's wife and as Giovanni's older aunt. The idea that the two had been in love has been the only explanation given to explain why Genevra was married Giovanni II, Sante's cousin who lived under their roof. However after archival research was conducted in Milan, we now see that Giovanni II had been forced to marry Genevra by order of the duke of Milan for Milan's political convenience. Bernhardt's Chapter 2 (pp. 73-108) explains the situation in detail behind this alliance, and the information and analysis is based on hundreds of 15th c. letters and other various archival materials.

Genevra had sixteen children with her second husband, of whom five died in infancy. They were:
 * Annibale III, later called Annibale II Bentivoglio (1469–1540) who married Lucrezia, an illegitimate daughter of Ercole I d'Este; Annibale II briefly became a de facto signore (lord) of Bologna from 1511 to 1512;
 * Ermes Bentivoglio (1475–1513) who married Giacoma Orsini of Rome;
 * Alessandro Bentivoglio (1474–1532) who married Ippolita Sforza of Milan;
 * Camilla (1473-1541), a nun at Corpus Domini in Bologna;
 * Isotta (1479--?), a nun at Corpus Domini in Bologna;
 * Francesca (1468-1504) who married to Galeotto Manfredi of Faenza then Guido Torelli;
 * Antongaleazzo Bentivoglio (1472-1525), protonotaio apostolico;
 * Eleonora (1470-1540) who married Ghiberto Pio of Carpi;
 * Laura (1477-1523) who married Giovanni Gonzaga of Mantua;
 * Violante (1475--?) who married Pandolfo IV Malatesta of Rimini;
 * Bianca (1467--?) who married Niccolò Rangoni of Spilamberto;
 * Those who died young were: Annibale II (b. 1465); Donnina (b. 1471); Isotta (b. 1478); Cornelio (b. 1481); and Ludovico (b. 1482).
 * Giovanni II also fathered many other illegitimate children (over 10 for certain, and not counting those who died young who remain completely unknown, and possibly up to 17 who survived); he fathered these additional children with at least five domestic servants who lived under his roof.

Bernhardt's Chapter 3 (pp. 109-180) discusses the Bentivoglio offspring and their marriage alliances. Giovanni II and Genevra also served as godparents on a massive scale, serving over 350 local children from over 200 local families. Giovanni II and Genevra had so many children as a result of the near annihilation of the Bentivoglio family in the early 15th c. And because Giovanni II had also been humiliated on a peninsular scale when he was forced into Milanese submission by being forcibly married to Genevra (who had been Sante's wife and considered 'used property,' a woman 'used' by a lower level family member, and his own sexually-experienced older aunt), that he wanted to show that he was a powerful man who could create a huge family and dominate Bologna.

Genevra was involved in many activities appropriate for a woman of her status and time. These social and cultural activities are outlined and discussed in detail in Bernhardt's Chapter 1 (pp. 37-71). For example, a dance composed, choreographed and named 'Zinevera' after Genevra was created by Renaissance Italy's most famous dance master: Guglielmo Ebreo (later Giovanni Ambrosio). Genevra was the central figure in Giovanni Sabadino degli Arienti's collection of women's lives: Gynevera de le clare donne; and later of Giacomo Filippo Foresti's collection of women's lives. Genevra's famous 1475 portrait painted by Ercole de' Roberti and her smaller ca. 1454 lead portrait medal created by Antonio Marescotti are both held at the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.  Genevra befriended Gentile Budrioli (wife of the notary Alessandro Cimieri) who was accused of witchcraft and burned at the stake in 1498. Genevra was also an attentive host who organized many wedding celebrations and other festivities over the course of her life.

From Sante's rule onward many popes somewhat acknowledged the lordship of the Bentivoglio--although neither Sante nor Giovanni II ever ruled as a de jure signori but only as de facto rulers, as heads of the Sedici. In an important analysis by Angela De Benedictis, Bologna was only a "republic by contract."

The Bentivoglio family faced a conspiracy by the Malvezzi family in 1488; and in 1501 another one organized by the rival Marescotti. Although legends claim that Genevra gave advice to retaliate brutally, there is no evidence in any 15th c. document that she ever said or convinced anyone to retaliate; many Malvezzi and Marescotti family members were however killed in revenge.

Exile and death
Some Bolognese citizens complained about the government in Bologna and petitioned Pope Julius II, who personally led his army to Bologna to take over a city that he considered to be a lost rebel city. Giovanni II and the Bentivoglio males and many partisans fled Bologna in the dark on the night of 1 November 1506 to avoid being killed by papal troops; they headed through Mantuan territory and then to Milan. Genevra and many Bentivoglio females also voluntarily exiled themselves from Bologna a few days later, heading to Mantua to stay with Isabella d'Este. Eventually Genevra was forced out of Mantua by Pope Julius II and headed toward Milan; but due to grave illness she was first forced to take refuge along the way with the Marchese Galeazzo Pallavicini in Busseto (Parma). The Bentivoglio properties in Bologna were looted and Palazzo Bentivoglio was razed in early May 1507. Bernhardt's Chapter 5 (pp. 217-256) analyses the dramatic moments at the end of Genevra's life and the fall of the Bentivoglio in Bologna.

Genevra died on 17 May 1507, and later legends claimed that her body was thrown into the nettles in Busseto (Parma). Instead she was likely buried in the Pallavicino family chapel dedicated to Santa Maria delle Grazie within the Chiesa of Santa Maria degli Angeli in Busseto. Giovanni II died the following year in Milan.

Many negative stories were invented after Genevra's death, stories that have been repeated about Genevra for over 500 years, stories that have helped explain how the Bentivoglio lost power in Bologna--however none of the stories were told during Genevra's lifetime nor by pro-Bentivoglio historians or partisans; all of the stories were invented by Bentivoglio enemies who stayed in Bologna after the Bentivoglio exile of 1506. Bernhardt's Chapter 6 (pp. 257-308) is dedicated to the history and analysis of the legends that have been told about Genevra Sforza.

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