Hundred Years' War, 1415–1453

The Lancastrian War was the third and final phase of the Hundred Years' War between England and France. It lasted from 1415, when Henry V of England invaded Normandy, to 1453, when the English were definitively defeated in Aquitaine. It followed a long period of peace from the end of the Caroline War in 1389. The phase is named after the House of Lancaster, the ruling house of the Kingdom of England, to which Henry V belonged.

The early years of the Lancastrian War were dominated by the forces of the House of Plantagenet, who held the English throne and also claimed that of France. Initial English successes, notably at the Battle of Agincourt, coupled with divisions among the French ruling class, allowed Henry V to win the allegiance of large parts of France. Under the terms of the Treaty of Troyes of 1420, the English king married the French princess Catherine of Valois and was made regent of the kingdom and heir to the throne of France. A victory on paper was thus achieved by the English, with their claims now having legal standing. Some of the French nobility refused to recognise the agreement, however, and so military conflict continued. Henry V and, after his death, his brother John, Duke of Bedford, brought the English to the height of their power in France, with a Plantagenet crowned in Paris.

The second half of this phase of the war was dominated by forces loyal to the House of Valois, the French-born rivals of the Plantagenets who continued to claim the throne of France themselves. Beginning in 1429, French forces counterattacked, inspired by Joan of Arc, La Hire and the Count of Dunois, and aided by a reconciliation with the Dukes of Burgundy and Brittany, who had previously sided with the Plantagenets. Charles VII was crowned in Notre-Dame de Reims in 1429, and from then a slow but steady reconquest of English-held French territories ensued. Ultimately the English would be expelled from France, except for the Pale of Calais, which would be re-captured by the French a century later.

The Battle of Castillon (1453) was the final major engagement of the Hundred Years' War, but France and England remained formally at war until the Treaty of Picquigny in 1475. English, and later British, monarchs would continue to nominally claim the French throne until 1802 though they would never again seriously pursue it.

England resumes the war
Henry V of England, of the House of Plantagenet, asserted a claim of inheritance of the French throne through the female line; female agency and inheritance were recognised in English law but rejected in France due to the Salic law. Henry sought to succeed to the French throne via the claim of his great-grandfather, Edward III of England, through Edward's mother – a claim which the court of France had previously rejected in favour of a more distant but male-line successor, Philip VI.

On his English accession in 1413, Henry V pacified the realm by conciliating the remaining enemies of the House of Lancaster, and suppressing the heresy of the Lollards. In 1415, Henry V invaded France and captured Harfleur. Decimated by diseases, Henry's army marched to Calais to withdraw from the French campaign. The French forces of Charles VI of Valois harassed the English, but refrained from making an open battle while amassing their numbers. The French finally gave battle at Agincourt, which proved to be a major English victory and an overwhelming disaster for the Valois side.

The Armagnac and Burgundian factions of the French court began negotiations to unite against the foreign enemy. Notable leaders of the Armagnac faction, such as Charles, Duke of Orléans, John I, Duke of Bourbon, and Arthur de Richemont (brother of the Duke of Brittany), became prisoners in England. The Burgundians, under John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, had conserved their forces, not having fought at Agincourt, but the duke's younger brothers — Anthony, Duke of Brabant and Philip II, Count of Nevers — died at that battle. At a meeting between the Dauphin Charles and John the Fearless, the Duke of Burgundy was assassinated by the Dauphin's followers in 1419, prompting his son and successor, Philip the Good, to form an alliance with Henry V.

Treaty of Troyes
In the spring of 1420, Henry and Philip forced Charles VI of France to sign the Treaty of Troyes, by which Henry would marry Charles's daughter Catherine of Valois, and Henry and his heirs would inherit the throne of France, disinheriting Charles's own son, the Dauphin Charles. Henry formally entered Paris later that year and the agreement was ratified by the Estates-General of France. In March, an English army under the command of the Earl of Salisbury had ambushed and destroyed a Franco-Scottish force at Fresnay 20 miles north of Le Mans. According to a chronicler, the French and Scottish lost 3,000 men, their camp and its contents including the Scottish treasury. In 1421, an English army of 4,000 was defeated by a Franco-Scottish army of 5,000 at the Battle of Baugé. During the battle the Duke of Clarence, brother of Henry V, was killed.

Anglo-Burgundian pressure
At the end of his life, Henry V's forces and allies controlled most of northern France, but other parts of the kingdom remained loyal to the Valois claimant, the Dauphin Charles. On his deathbed, Henry detailed his plans for the war after his death: his followers must continue the war until the Treaty of Troyes had been recognised in all of France; the Duke of Burgundy must be offered the regency of France, with the Duke of Bedford as substitute should he decline; the Burgundian alliance must be preserved at all costs; and the Duke of Orléans and some other prisoners must be retained until Henry's son had come of age. There would be no treaty with the Dauphin unless Normandy would be confirmed as an English possession. Bedford adhered to his brother's will, and the Burgundian alliance was preserved as long as he lived.

After Henry's death in 1422, almost simultaneously with that of his father-in-law, his infant son was crowned Henry VI of England and II of France. The Armagnacs did not acknowledge Henry and remained loyal to Charles VI's son, the Dauphin Charles. The war thus continued in central France.

In 1423, the Earl of Salisbury completely defeated another Franco-Scottish force at Cravant on the banks of the Yonne river. He personally led the crossing of the river, successfully assaulting a formidable enemy position, and in the resulting battle the Scots took very heavy losses. The same year saw a French victory at the Battle of La Brossinière.

The following year, Bedford won what has been described as a "second Agincourt" at Verneuil when his army destroyed a Franco-Scottish army estimated at 16,000 men. This was not a victory of the longbow; advances in plate armour granted armoured cavalry a much greater measure of protection. Due to the August heat, the English archers could not implant their defensive stakes, allowing the archers of one flank to be swept away. However, the English men-at-arms stood firm and waded into their enemy. Assisted by a flank attack from the other wing’s archers, they destroyed the allied army. The Scots were surrounded on the field and annihilated, virtually to the last man. Approximately 6500 died there, including all their commanders. As a result, no large-scale Scottish force landed in France again. The French were also subjected to heavy punishment, as their leaders were killed on the field and the rank and file were killed or mostly dispersed.

The following five years witnessed the peak of English power, extending from the Channel to the Loire, excluding only Orléans and Angers, and from Brittany in the west to Burgundy in the east. This was achieved with a shrinking number of available men, however, as forces were needed to occupy the newly-captured territory.

Joan of Arc
[[File:Treaty of Troyes.svg|upright=1.2|thumb|1415–1429

{{legend|#ea8b9d|Controlled by Henry VI of England}} {{legend|#c896c8|Controlled by Philip III of Burgundy}} {{legend|#7f9ad7|Controlled by Charles VII of France}}

{{legend|#c8ccd1|textcolor=#ffff00|text=★|Main battles}} {{legend|#c8ccd1|textcolor=#ff0000|text=---|Battle of Agincourt, 1415}} {{legend|#c8ccd1|textcolor=#ffffff|text=---|Journey to Chinon, 1429}} {{legend|#c8ccd1|textcolor=#0000ff|text=---|March to Reims, 1429}}]]

In 1428, the English army laid siege to Orléans, one of the most heavily defended cities in Europe, with more cannons in their possession than the French. However, one of the French cannons managed to kill the English commander, the Earl of Salisbury. The English force maintained several small fortresses around the city, concentrated in areas where the French could move supplies into the city. In 1429, Joan of Arc convinced the Dauphin to send her to the siege, saying she had received visions from God telling her to drive out the English. With her belief in the absolute and divine right of kings, and her conversations with saints and the archangel Michael, she raised the morale of the local troops and they attacked the English redoubts, forcing the English to lift the siege only nine days after her arrival. At the same time, the Valois had updated and enhanced their army, and took advantage of the differing war aims of the Plantagenets and Burgundians.

Inspired by Joan, the French took several English strong points on the Loire and then broke through English archers at Patay commanded by John Fastolf and John Talbot. This victory helped Joan to convince the Dauphin to march to Reims for his coronation as Charles VII. Although a number of other cities were opened to Charles in the march to Reims and after, Joan never managed to capture Paris, equally well defended as Orléans. She was captured on 23 May 1430 during the siege of Compiègne by Burgundian forces still allied with the Plantagenets. Joan was transferred to the English, tried by an ecclesiastic court headed by the pro-English Pierre Cauchon, and executed.

Defection of the Burgundians
Bedford was the only person that kept the Burgundian forces on the side of the Plantagenets. The Duke of Burgundy was not on good terms with Bedford's younger brother, Gloucester. At Bedford's death in 1435, the Burgundians deemed themselves excused from the English alliance, and signed the Treaty of Arras, restoring Paris to Charles VII. Their allegiance remained fickle, but the Burgundian focus on expanding their domains into the Low Countries left them little energy to intervene in France. The death of Bedford at the same time removed the one uniting force on the English side, while foreshadowing the decline of English dominance in France.

Long truces that marked the war at this point; they gave Charles time to reorganise his army and government, replacing his feudal levies with a more modern professional army that could put its superior numbers to good use, and centralising the French state. A repetition of Du Guesclin's battle avoidance strategy paid dividends and the French were able to recover town after town.

By 1449, the French had retaken Rouen. In 1450, the Count of Clermont and Arthur de Richemont, Earl of Richmond, of the Montfort family (the future Arthur III, Duke of Brittany) caught an English army attempting to relieve Caen at the Battle of Formigny and defeated it. The English army was attacked from the flank and rear by Richemont's force just as they were on the verge of beating Clermont's army. The French proceeded to capture Caen on July 6 and Bordeaux and Bayonne in 1451. The attempt by Talbot to retake Guyenne, though initially welcomed by the locals, was crushed by Jean Bureau and his cannons at the Battle of Castillon in 1453 where Talbot had led a small Anglo-Gascon force in a frontal attack on an entrenched camp. This is considered the last battle of the Hundred Years' War.