Kainantu–Goroka languages

The Kainantu–Goroka languages are a family of Papuan languages established by Arthur Capell in 1948 under the name East Highlands. They formed the core of Stephen Wurm's 1960 East New Guinea Highlands family (the precursor of Trans–New Guinea), and are one of the larger branches of Trans–New Guinea in the 2005 classification of Malcolm Ross.

Languages
The constituent Kainantu and Goroka families are clearly valid groups, and both William A. Foley and Timothy Usher consider their TNG identity to be established. The languages are:


 * Goroka family
 * Daulo
 * Siane, Yaweyuha
 * Gahuku: Alekano (Gahuku), Asaro River: Dano (Upper Asaro), Tokano (Lower Asaro)
 * Benabena
 * South Goroka: Fore, Gimi
 * Isabi, Gende
 * Henganofi
 * Abaga
 * Kamono (Kamano)
 * Fayatina River
 * Kanite, Inoke-Yate
 * Yagaria
 * (?Ke’yagana) [subsumed under another language by Usher]
 * Kainantu family
 * Kenati
 * Tairoric (East Kainantu): Binumarien (Afaqina), Tairoa (North Tairora, Omwunra, Vinaata), Waffa
 * Gauwa (West Kainantu)
 * Gadsup (Oyana, Akuna, Ontenu), Agarabi, Kambaira
 * Awa, Oweina
 * Auyana: Awiyaana (incl. Kosena), Usarufa

Pronouns
The pronouns reconstructed by Ross (2005) for proto-Kainantu–Goroka, proto-Kainantu, and proto-Goroka are as follows:





! !!sg!!du!!pl !1 !2 !3
 * +proto-Kainantu
 * né||*té[ze]-||*té[ze]
 * é[ze]||*[te]né-||
 * wé|| ||
 * }

! !!sg!!pl !1 !2 !3
 * +proto-Goroka
 * ná||*tá[za]
 * ká||*tá-na-gaza, *tí-na-gaza
 * [y]á||*[y]á-na-gaza, *í-na-gaza
 * }
 * }

The possessive forms are:



! !!sg!!pl !1 !2 !3
 * +proto-Kainantu–Goroka
 * na-i||*ta-i
 * ka||*tana-i
 * [y]a, *wa||*ya-i, *yana-i
 * }

Evolution
Kainantu–Goroka reflexes of proto-Trans-New Guinea (pTNG) etyma are:

Awa language:
 * are 'ear' < *kand(e,i)k(V]
 * nu 'louse' < *niman

Tairora language:
 * ato 'ear' < *kand(e,i)k(V]
 * ir 'tree' < *inda
 * (n)am 'breast' < *amu
 * nume 'louse' < *niman
 * kubu 'short' < *k(a,u)tu(p,mb)aC
 * mi- 'give' < *mV-

Fore language:
 * na- 'eat' < *na-
 * numaa 'louse' < *niman
 * mi- 'give' < *mV-
 * amune 'egg' < *mun(a,i,u)ka
 * kasa 'new' < *kVndak
 * mone 'nose' < *mundu

Gende language:
 * ami 'breast' < *amu
 * mut 'belly' < *mundun 'internal organs'
 * mina- 'stay' < *mVna-
 * nogoi 'water < *[n]ok
 * (tu)nima 'louse' < *niman
 * me- 'give' < *mV-

Innovations in proto-Kainantu-Goroka replacing proto-Trans-New Guinea forms:
 * *tá[za] '1pl' replaces pTNG *ni, *nu
 * *tá-na '2pl' replaces pTNG *ŋgi, *ja
 * genitive forms ending in *-i

Vocabulary
Gorokan basic vocabulary from William A. Foley (1986):


 * {| class="wikitable sortable"

! gloss !! Proto-Gorokan !! Gende !! Siane !! Benabena !! Kamono–Yagaria !! Fore
 * 'two' || *tote || ogondrari || lele || loe || lole || tara
 * 'man' || *we || vei || we || vo || ve || wa
 * 'water' || *no(k) || nogoi || no || nagami || ni(na) || wani
 * 'fire' || || tuva || yo || logo || hali || yakuʔ
 * 'tree' || *ya || izo || ya || yafa || yava || yaː
 * 'leaf' || || kuruma || aila || haya(ʔa) || haeya || aʔyeʔ
 * 'root' || *supa || tovaya || lufawa || lufusa(ʔa) || havu || aubu
 * 'house' || *nom || nomu || numu(na) || no(hi) || yo(na) || naːmaʔ
 * 'breast' || *ami || ami- || ami(na) || amiha(ʔa) || ami(maʔa) || nono
 * 'tooth' || *wa || va(iza) || auma || yogo(ʔa) || (ä)vep || (a)wa
 * 'bone' || *yampu || yami- || auma || felisa(ʔa) || (a)pu(va) || (a)yaːmpu
 * 'ear' || *ke/a || ka- || ka(la) || (e)kesa(ʔa) || (ä)geta || (a)ge
 * 'hair' || *yoka || yogo || yowa(la) || oka(ʔa) || (a)yokaʔ || (a)yaːʔ
 * 'leg' || *kia || kia- || kiya(na) || gigusa(ʔa) || (a)gia || (a)gisaː
 * 'blood' || *kota || mamia- || wanu || golaha(ʔa) || gola(na) || koraːʔ
 * 'hand' || *ya || ya || a(na) || yaha(ʔa) || (ä)ya || ya
 * 'egg' || *mut || mura || mula || mu(ʔa) || mu(na) || amuʔ
 * 'sun' || *po || po || fo || yafi || yafo || yaːbu
 * 'axe' || *tu || tu || luna || lu || lu || tuʔ
 * 'netbag' || *ko || ko || owo || gu(ʔi) || gu(na) || koʔ
 * 'eat' || *na- || na- || n- || na- || no- || na-
 * 'die' || *puti- || pri- || fol- || fili- || fili- || puri-
 * 'say' || *si- || ti- || l- || li- || hi- || i-
 * 'give' || *mi- || imi- || om- || m- || mi- || mi-
 * 'big' || *(n)ampa || namba || namba || napa || legepa || tabe
 * }
 * 'leg' || *kia || kia- || kiya(na) || gigusa(ʔa) || (a)gia || (a)gisaː
 * 'blood' || *kota || mamia- || wanu || golaha(ʔa) || gola(na) || koraːʔ
 * 'hand' || *ya || ya || a(na) || yaha(ʔa) || (ä)ya || ya
 * 'egg' || *mut || mura || mula || mu(ʔa) || mu(na) || amuʔ
 * 'sun' || *po || po || fo || yafi || yafo || yaːbu
 * 'axe' || *tu || tu || luna || lu || lu || tuʔ
 * 'netbag' || *ko || ko || owo || gu(ʔi) || gu(na) || koʔ
 * 'eat' || *na- || na- || n- || na- || no- || na-
 * 'die' || *puti- || pri- || fol- || fili- || fili- || puri-
 * 'say' || *si- || ti- || l- || li- || hi- || i-
 * 'give' || *mi- || imi- || om- || m- || mi- || mi-
 * 'big' || *(n)ampa || namba || namba || napa || legepa || tabe
 * }
 * 'netbag' || *ko || ko || owo || gu(ʔi) || gu(na) || koʔ
 * 'eat' || *na- || na- || n- || na- || no- || na-
 * 'die' || *puti- || pri- || fol- || fili- || fili- || puri-
 * 'say' || *si- || ti- || l- || li- || hi- || i-
 * 'give' || *mi- || imi- || om- || m- || mi- || mi-
 * 'big' || *(n)ampa || namba || namba || napa || legepa || tabe
 * }
 * 'give' || *mi- || imi- || om- || m- || mi- || mi-
 * 'big' || *(n)ampa || namba || namba || napa || legepa || tabe
 * }
 * 'big' || *(n)ampa || namba || namba || napa || legepa || tabe
 * }

Kainantu basic vocabulary from William A. Foley (1986):


 * {| class="wikitable sortable"

! gloss !! Awa !! Auyana !! Gadsup !! Tairora
 * 'two' || tɔtare || kaiʔa || kaantani || taaraʔanta
 * 'man' || wɛ || waiya || banta || bainti
 * 'water' || no || nomba || nomi || namari
 * 'fire' || ira || irama || ikai || iha
 * 'tree' || ta || taima || yaani || katari
 * 'leaf' || ɔnɔ || anama || anai || mare
 * 'root' || anuʔ || anuʔa || anuʔi || tuʔa
 * 'house' || nɔ || naamba || maʔi || naabu
 * 'breast' || nɔ || naamba || naami || naama
 * 'tooth' || awɛ || awaiyamba || abakuni || aabai
 * 'bone' || ayɔnta || ayaantamba || ayampai || buhaarima
 * 'ear' || ɔre || aʔa || aakami || aato
 * 'hair' || (a)yɔra || aayara || -nyoi || kauhi
 * 'leg' || ai || aisamima || akani || aiʔu
 * 'blood' || nɛe || naema || naarei || naare
 * 'hand' || ayɔnobeh || ayamba || aayaami || kauʔu
 * 'egg' || au || auma || amuʔi || auru
 * 'sun' || popoʔnah || aabauma || ikona || kauri
 * 'axe' || konaro || koraroba || kuntaʔi || kaarima
 * 'netbag' || unɔ || unaamba || unaami || uta
 * 'eat' || nɔno || nare || naano || naana
 * 'die' || pukire || pukai || pukono || ʔutubiro
 * 'say' || iraruwo || siyo || seʔu || tiena
 * 'give' || awiʔ || ami || ameno || amina
 * 'big' || aanotɔ || anomba || inoʔna || nora
 * }
 * 'leg' || ai || aisamima || akani || aiʔu
 * 'blood' || nɛe || naema || naarei || naare
 * 'hand' || ayɔnobeh || ayamba || aayaami || kauʔu
 * 'egg' || au || auma || amuʔi || auru
 * 'sun' || popoʔnah || aabauma || ikona || kauri
 * 'axe' || konaro || koraroba || kuntaʔi || kaarima
 * 'netbag' || unɔ || unaamba || unaami || uta
 * 'eat' || nɔno || nare || naano || naana
 * 'die' || pukire || pukai || pukono || ʔutubiro
 * 'say' || iraruwo || siyo || seʔu || tiena
 * 'give' || awiʔ || ami || ameno || amina
 * 'big' || aanotɔ || anomba || inoʔna || nora
 * }
 * 'netbag' || unɔ || unaamba || unaami || uta
 * 'eat' || nɔno || nare || naano || naana
 * 'die' || pukire || pukai || pukono || ʔutubiro
 * 'say' || iraruwo || siyo || seʔu || tiena
 * 'give' || awiʔ || ami || ameno || amina
 * 'big' || aanotɔ || anomba || inoʔna || nora
 * }
 * 'give' || awiʔ || ami || ameno || amina
 * 'big' || aanotɔ || anomba || inoʔna || nora
 * }
 * 'big' || aanotɔ || anomba || inoʔna || nora
 * }

Proto-languages
Some lexical reconstructions of Proto-East Kainantu and Proto-North Kainantu by Usher (2020) are:


 * {| class="wikitable sortable"

! gloss !! Proto-East Kainantu !! Proto-North Kainantu
 * head || *piᵄtɐ || *noːN
 * hair/feather || *jɐᵘsi || *jɐᵘ
 * ear || *ɑːtoː || *ɑːʔ
 * eye || *wu || *u
 * nose || *ipi || *siʔ
 * tooth || *wɐⁱ || *wɐj
 * tongue || *m₂ɑːpiɾi || *[m/n][ɐⁱ]piɾ
 * leg || *ipu || *tɐɾ
 * blood || *wi[ʔt]ipɐ || *nɑːɾeː
 * bone || *muʔjɑːni || *(ɐ-)jɐNpɐ
 * breast || *nɑːNmɐ || *nɑːN
 * louse || *numɐ || *nuN
 * dog || *w₂ɐⁱni || *ijɐN
 * pig || *p₂uᵄɾɐ || *poːɾ
 * bird || *inɑːmɐ; *uwini || *nuN
 * egg || *uɾu || *uɾ
 * tree || *jɐtɐɾi || *jɑːj
 * sun || *j₂uᵄni || *ɑːʔ
 * moon || *[u]toːnɐ || *wi[ɾ]oːN
 * water || *noːni || *noːN
 * fire || *iʔjɐ || *itɐ
 * stone || *oːni || *oː[ɾ/j]
 * path || *ɑːni || *ɑːj
 * man || *wɐⁱ-iNti || *wɑːⁱNsɐ
 * woman || *ɐnɑːjeː || *ɐnɑːsi
 * name || *utu || *wiʔ
 * eat || *nɐ- ||
 * one || *moːʔjɑː || *mɐnɑː
 * two || *tɑːɾɐ || *tɑːN
 * }
 * egg || *uɾu || *uɾ
 * tree || *jɐtɐɾi || *jɑːj
 * sun || *j₂uᵄni || *ɑːʔ
 * moon || *[u]toːnɐ || *wi[ɾ]oːN
 * water || *noːni || *noːN
 * fire || *iʔjɐ || *itɐ
 * stone || *oːni || *oː[ɾ/j]
 * path || *ɑːni || *ɑːj
 * man || *wɐⁱ-iNti || *wɑːⁱNsɐ
 * woman || *ɐnɑːjeː || *ɐnɑːsi
 * name || *utu || *wiʔ
 * eat || *nɐ- ||
 * one || *moːʔjɑː || *mɐnɑː
 * two || *tɑːɾɐ || *tɑːN
 * }
 * path || *ɑːni || *ɑːj
 * man || *wɐⁱ-iNti || *wɑːⁱNsɐ
 * woman || *ɐnɑːjeː || *ɐnɑːsi
 * name || *utu || *wiʔ
 * eat || *nɐ- ||
 * one || *moːʔjɑː || *mɐnɑː
 * two || *tɑːɾɐ || *tɑːN
 * }
 * eat || *nɐ- ||
 * one || *moːʔjɑː || *mɐnɑː
 * two || *tɑːɾɐ || *tɑːN
 * }
 * two || *tɑːɾɐ || *tɑːN
 * }