List of Plasmodium species infecting primates

The Plasmodium species infecting primates include the parasites causing malaria in humans.

Common infections

 * Plasmodium falciparum (the cause of malignant tertian malaria)
 * Plasmodium vivax (the most frequent cause of benign tertian malaria)
 * Plasmodium ovale curtisi (another, less frequent, cause of benign tertian malaria)
 * Plasmodium ovale wallikeri (another, less frequent, cause of benign tertian malaria)
 * Plasmodium malariae (the cause of benign quartan malaria)
 * Plasmodium knowlesi (the cause of severe quotidian malaria in Southeast Asia)

Rare cases
While infection of humans by other species is known, they are quite rare, in some instances, only a single case. In a number of the cases, the means of infection is unknown, and may be due to accident, i.e. infection by laboratory equipment or a bite by an animal. With the use of the polymerase chain reaction additional species have been and are still being identified that infect humans.
 * Plasmodium cynomolgi (spp. cynomolgi, bastianellii)
 * Plasmodium inui
 * Plasmodium schwetzi
 * Plasmodium semiovale
 * Plasmodium simium

(Plasmodium brasilianum and Plasmodium rhodiani which have been reported to infect humans, are likely synonymous with P. malariae) One possible experimental infection has been reported with Plasmodium eylesi. Fever and low grade parasitemia were apparent at 15 days. The volunteer (Dr Bennett) had previously been infected by Plasmodium cynomolgi and the infection was not transferable to a gibbon (P. eylesi 's natural host) so this cannot be regarded as definitive evidence of its ability to infect humans. A second case has been reported that may have been a case of P. eylesi but the author was not certain of the infecting species. A possible infection with Plasmodium tenue has been reported. This report described a case of malaria in a three-year-old black girl from Georgia, United States, who had never been outside the US. She suffered from both P. falciparum and P. vivax malaria and while forms similar to those described for P. tenue were found in her blood even the author was skeptical about the validity of the diagnosis.

Confusingly Plasmodium tenue was proposed in the same year (1914) for a species found in birds. The human species is now considered to be likely to have been a misdiagnosis and the bird species is described on the Plasmodium tenue page.

Former names
Taxonomy in parasitology until the advent of DNA based methods has always been a problem and revisions in this area are continuing. A number of synonyms have been given for the species infecting humans that are no longer recognised as valid. Since perusal of the older literature may be confusing some currently defunct species names are listed here. • P. camerense

• P. causiasium

• P. golgi

• P. immaculatum

• P. laverani var. tertium

• P. laverani var. quartum

• P. malariae var. immaculatum

• P. malariae var. incolor

• P. malariae var. irregularis

• P. malariae var. parva

• P. malariae var. quartanae

• P. malariae var. quotidianae

• P. perniciosum

• P. pleurodyniae

• P. praecox

• P. quartana

• P. quotidianum

• P. sedecimanae

• P. tenue

• P. undecimanae

• P. vegesio-tertaniae

• P. vivax-minuta Plasmodium shortii and Plasmodium osmaniae are now considered to be junior synonyms of Plasmodium inui.

Plasmodium taxonomy

 * P. cynomolgi - P. cynomolgi bastianelli, P. cynomolgi ceylonensis and P. cynomolgi cynomolgi.
 * P. inui - P. inui inui and P. inui shortii
 * P. knowlesi - P. knowlesi edesoni and P. knowlesi knowlesi.
 * P. ovale - P. ovale curtisi and P. ovale wallikeri
 * P. vivax - P. vivax hibernans, P. vivax chesson and P. vivax multinucleatum.

Interrelatedness - The evolution of these species is still being worked out and the relationships given here should be regarded as tentative. This grouping, while originally made on morphological grounds, now has considerable support at the DNA level.
 * P. brasilianum, P. inui and P. rodhaini are similar to P. malariae (quartan malaria group)
 * P. cynomolgi, P. fragile, P. knowlesi, P. simium and P. schwetzi are similar to P. vivax
 * P. fieldi and P. simiovale are similar to P. ovale
 * P. falciparum is closely related to P. reichenowi.

Subspecies
Many species of Plasmodium which infect primates have been divided into subspecies. Examples are listed below:

Species infecting other hosts
Most if not all Plasmodium species infect more than one host: the host records shown here should be regarded as incomplete.


 * P. billbrayi - chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes troglodytes, Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii)
 * P. billcollinsi - chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes troglodytes, Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii)
 * P. bouillize - Cercopithecis campbelli
 * P. brasilianum - Alouatta fusca, Alouatta palliata, Alouatta seniculus straminea, Alouatta villosa, several night monkey (Aotus) species, Aotus nigriceps, Ateles fusciceps, Ateles geoffroyi, Ateles geoffroyi grisescens, Ateles paniscus, Ateles paniscus paniscus, Ateles paniscus chamek, Brachyteles arachnoides, Callicebus moloch ornatus, Callicebus torquatus, Cebus albifrons, Cebus apella, Cebus capucinus, Cebus capucinus capucinus, Cebus capucinus imitator, Chiropotes chiropotes, Lagothrix cana, Lagothrix infumata, Lagothrix lagotricha, Saimiri boliviense, Saimiri sciureus and Saimiri ustus.
 * P. bucki - Lemur macaco macaco
 * P. cercopitheci - Cercopithecis nictitans
 * P. coatneyi - crab eating macque (Macaca fascicularis) and Javanese long-tailed macaque (Macaca irus), silvered leaf monkey (Presbytis cristatus)
 * P. coulangesi - Lemur macaco macaco
 * P. cynomolgi - bear macaque (Macaca arctoides), Formosan rock macaque (Macaca cyclopis), crab eating macque (Macaca fascicularis), Javanese long-tailed macaque (Macaca irus), rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta), southern pig-tailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina), bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata), toque macaque (Macaca sinica), orangutan (Pongo species), silver leaf monkey (Presbytis cristatus) and Hanuman langur (Presbytis entellus)
 * P. eylesi - several gibbon (Hylobates) species including Hylobates lar
 * P. falciparum - gorillas (Gorilla gorilla), rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta), bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata), bonobos (Pan paniscus)
 * P. fieldi - the crab eating macque (Macaca fascicularis), the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta), the pig-tailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina), the bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata) and the baboon (Papio doguera).
 * P. foleyi - Lemur fulvus rufus
 * P. fragile - Aotus lemurinus griseimembra, Aotus nancymaae, Aotus vociferans, crab eating macque (Macaca fascicularis), rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta), bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata), toque macaque (Macaca sinica) and Saimiri boliviensis
 * P. inui - Formosan rock macaque (Macaca cyclopis), crab eating macque (Macaca fascicularis), Javanese long-tailed macaque (Macaca irus), bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata)
 * P. gaboni - chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)
 * P. georgesi - black crested mangabey (Cercocebus albigena)
 * P. girardi - Lemur fulvus rufus, Lemur macaco macaco
 * P. gonderi - black crested mangabey (Cercocebus albigena), Cercocebus aterrimus, sooty mangabey (Cercocebus atys), Tana River mangabey (Cercocebus galeritus agilus), crab eating macque (Macaca fascicularis) and drills (Mandrillus leucophaeus)
 * P. gora - gorillas (Gorilla gorilla)
 * P. gorb - gorillas (Gorilla gorilla)
 * P. hylobati - several gibbon (Hylobates) species including Hylobates lar and Hylobates moloch
 * P. inui - Aotus lemurinus griseimembra, Aotus nancymaae, Celebes black ape (Cynopithecus niger), Assamese macques (Macaca assamensis), crab eating macque (Macaca fascicularis), rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta), southern pig-tailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina), bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata), several Presbytis species, Saimiri boliviensis
 * P. jefferyi - several gibbon (Hylobates) species
 * P. joyeuxi - Cercopithecis callitricus
 * P. knowlesi - crab eating macque (Macaca fascicularis), pig-tailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina) and Presbytis malalophus
 * P. knowlesi edesoni - Javanese long-tailed macaque (Macaca irus)
 * P. lemuris - lemurs (Lemur collaris, Lemur macaco macaco)
 * P. lomamiensis - bonobos (Pan paniscus)
 * P. malagasi - lemurs
 * P. malariae - brown howler monkey (Alouatta guariba clamitans), black howler monkey (Alouatta caraya) chimpanzee
 * P. ovale - chimpanzees (Pan)
 * P. percygarnhami - Lemur macaco macaco
 * P. petersi - black crested mangabey (Cercocebus albigena)
 * P. pitheci - orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus)
 * P. reichenowi - chimpanzee (Pan) species and gorilla (Gorilla) species
 * P. rodhaini - chimpanzee (Pan) species and gorilla (Gorilla) species
 * P. sandoshami - Malayan flying lemur (Cynocephalus variegatus)
 * P. semnopitheci - northern plains gray langur (Semnopithecus entellus)
 * P. schwetzi - chimpanzee (Pan) species and gorilla (Gorilla) species
 * P. semiovale - toque macaque (Macaca sinica)
 * P. shortii - bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata) and toque macaque (Macaca sinica)
 * P. silvaticum - orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus)
 * P. simium - several howler monkeys (Alouatta) species including the brown howler monkey (Alouatta fusca) and woolly spider monkey (Brachyteles arachnoides)
 * P. uilenbergi - Lemur fulvus fulvus
 * P. vivax - orangutans (Pongo species), chimpanzees (Pan), monkeys Saimiri boliviensis, Aotus lemurinus griseimambra, the brown howler monkey (Alouatta guariba clamitans) and tamarins (Saguinus mystax and Saguinus fuscicollis)
 * P. youngei - white handed gibbon (Hylobates lar)

It has been proposed that the species P. gora and P. gorb should be renamed P. adleri and P. blacklocki respectively.

Primate groups and Plasmodium species
New World monkeys of the family Cebidae: P. brasilianum and P. simium

Old World monkeys of the family Cercopithecidae: P. coatneyi, P. cynomolgi, P. fieldi, P. fragile, P.gonderi, P. georgesi, P. inui, P. knowlesi, P. petersi, P. shortti and P. simiovale

Gibbons of the family Hylobatidae: P. eylesi, P. hylobati, P. jefferyi and P. youngi

Orangutans (Pongo): P. pitheci and P. silvaticum

Gorillas and chimpanzees: P. billcollini, P. billbrayii, P. falciparum, P. gabonensi, P. gora, P. gorb, P. reichenowi, P. rodhaini and P. schwetzi

Mosquitoes known to transmit human malaria listed by region
This listing may be incomplete as the taxonomy of this genus is under revision.

North American


 * Anopheles (Anopheles) freeborni
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) quadrimaculatus
 * Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) albimarus

Central American


 * Anopheles (Anopheles) aztecus
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) punctimacula
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) pseudopunctipennis
 * Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) albimanus
 * Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) albitarsis
 * Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) aquasalis
 * Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) argyritarsis
 * Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) darlingi

South American


 * Anopheles (Anopheles) pseudopunctipennis
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) punctimacula
 * Anopheles (Kerteszia) bellator
 * Anopheles (Kerteszia) cruzii
 * Anopheles (Kerteszia) neivai
 * Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) albimanus
 * Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) albitarsis
 * Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) aquasalis
 * Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) argyritarsis
 * Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) braziliensis
 * Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) darlingi
 * Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) nuneztovari
 * Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) triannulatus

North Eurasian


 * Anopheles (Anopheles) atroparvus
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) messeae
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) sacharovi
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) sinensis
 * Anopheles (Cellia) pattoni

Mediterranean


 * Anopheles (Anopheles) atroparvus
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) claviger
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) labranchiae
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) messeae
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) sacharovi
 * Anopheles (Cellia) Hispaniola
 * Anopheles (Cellia) superpictus

Afro-Arabian


 * Anopheles (Cellia) culicifacies
 * Anopheles (Cellia) fluviatilis
 * Anopheles (Cellia) Hispaniola
 * Anopheles (Cellia) multicolor
 * Anopheles (Cellia) pharoensis
 * Anopheles (Cellia) sergentii

Afrotropical


 * Anopheles (Cellia) arabiensis
 * Anopheles (Cellia) funestus
 * Anopheles (Cellia) gambiae
 * Anopheles (Cellia) melas
 * Anopheles (Cellia) merus
 * Anopheles (Cellia) moucheti
 * Anopheles (Cellia) nili
 * Anopheles (Cellia) pharoensis

Indo-Iranian


 * Anopheles (Anopheles) sacharovi
 * Anopheles (Cellia) aconitus
 * Anopheles (Cellia) annularis
 * Anopheles (Cellia) culicifacies
 * Anopheles (Cellia) fluviatilis
 * Anopheles (Cellia) jeyporiensis
 * Anopheles (Cellia) minimus
 * Anopheles (Cellia) philippinensis
 * Anopheles (Cellia) pulcherrimus
 * Anopheles (Cellia) stephensi
 * Anopheles (Cellia) sundaicus
 * Anopheles (Cellia) superpictus
 * Anopheles (Cellia) tessellatus
 * Anopheles (Cellia) varuna

Indo-Chinese hills


 * Anopheles (Anopheles) nigerrimus
 * Anopheles (Cellia) annularis
 * Anopheles (Cellia) culicifacies
 * Anopheles (Cellia) dirus
 * Anopheles (Cellia) fluviatilis
 * Anopheles (Cellia) jeyporiensis
 * Anopheles (Cellia) maculatus
 * Anopheles (Cellia) minimus

Malaysian


 * Anopheles (Anopheles) campestris
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) conaldi
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) donaldi
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) letifer
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) nigerrimus
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) whartoni
 * Anopheles (Cellia) acconitus
 * Anopheles (Cellia) balabacensis
 * Anopheles (Cellia) dirus
 * Anopheles (Cellia) flavirostris
 * Anopheles (Cellia) jeyporiensis
 * Anopheles (Cellia) leucosphyrus
 * Anopheles (Cellia) ludlowae
 * Anopheles (Cellia) maculatus
 * Anopheles (Cellia) mangyanu
 * Anopheles (Cellia) minimus
 * Anopheles (Cellia) philippiensis
 * Anopheles (Cellia) subpictus
 * Anopheles (Cellia) sundaicus

Chinese


 * Anopheles (Anopheles) anthropophagus
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) sinensis
 * Anopheles (Cellia) balabacensis
 * Anopheles (Cellia) jeyporiensis
 * Anopheles (Cellia) pattoni

Australasian


 * Anopheles (Anopheles) bacroftii
 * Anopheles (Cellia) farauti type 1
 * Anopheles (Cellia) farauti type 2
 * Anopheles (Cellia) hilli
 * Anopheles (Cellia) karwari
 * Anopheles (Cellia) koliensis
 * Anopheles (Cellia) punctulatus
 * Anopheles (Cellia) subpictus

Primate mosquito vectors and associated Plasmodium species

 * Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) albimanus - P. fieldi, P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) albitarsis - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) aquasalis - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Cellia) arabensis - P. falciparum
 * Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) argyritarsi - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) argyropus - P. fieldi
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) artemievi - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) atroparvus - P. fieldi, P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) aztecus - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Cellia) baimaii - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Cellia) balabacensis - P. fieldi, P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) beklemishevi - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Kerteszia) bellator - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) benarrochi - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Kertezia) bifurcatus - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) braziliensis - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Kertezia) claviger - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) coustani - P. falciparum
 * Anopheles (Kerteszia) cruzii - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Cellia) culicifacies - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) darlingi - P. falciparum, P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) deaneorum - P. falciparum, P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Cellia) dirus - P. cynomolgi, P. fieldi, P. falciparum, P. inui, P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) donaldi - P. fieldi
 * Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) dunhami - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Cellia) epiroticus - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Cellia) farauti - P. coatneyi, P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Cellia) flavirostris - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) freeborni - P. fieldi, P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Cellia) funestus - P. falciparum
 * Anopheles (Cellia) fluviatilis - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Cellia) gambiae - P. falciparum, P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Cellia) hackeri - P. fieldi, P. knowlesi
 * Anopheles (Kerteszia) homunculus - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) hyrcanus - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Cellia) introlatus - P. cynomolgi, P. eylesi
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) kleini - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Cellia) kochi - P. eylesi, P. fieldi
 * Anopheles (Cellia) latens - P. knowlesi
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) lesteri - P. eylesi
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) letifer - P. eylesi, P. fieldi
 * Anopheles (Cellia) leucosphyrus - P. eylesi, P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Cellia) maculatus - P. eylesi, P. fieldi, P. inui, P. vivax, P. youngei
 * Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) marajoara - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) maculipennis - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) martinius - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) mediopunctatus - P. falciparum, P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Cellia) melas - P. falciparum
 * Anopheles (Cellia) merus - P. falciparum
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) messeae - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Cellia) minimus - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Cellia) moucheti - P. falciparum
 * Anopheles (Cellia) nili - P. falciparum
 * Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) nuneztovari - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) oswaldoi - P. falciparum, P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) paludis - P. falciparum
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) peditaeniatus - P. fieldi
 * Anopheles (Cellia) philippinensis - P. fieldi
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) pseudopunctipennis - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Cellia) pulcherrimus - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) pullus - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) punctimacula - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) punctipennis - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Cellia) quadrimaculatus - P. fieldi, P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) rangeli - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Cellia) macarthuri - P. eylesi
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) roperi - P. eylesi
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) sacharovi - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Cellia) sergentii - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) sinensis - P. eylesi, P. fieldi, P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Cellia) stephensi - P. cynomogli, P. fieldi, P. inui, P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Cellia) sundaicus - P. eylesi, P. vivax, P. youngei
 * Anopheles (Cellia) superpictus - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Cellia) tessellatus - P. falciparum, P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) triannulatus - P. falciparum, P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) trinkae - P. vivax
 * Anopheles (Anopheles) umbrosus - P. eylesi
 * Anopheles (Cellia) vagus - P. eylesi, P. fieldi