Mangfu

', also known as ' , ' , and ', sometimes referred as dragon robe although they are different garments, in English, is a type of , a robe, in. The falls under the broad category of , where the  is considered as being the classic form of. The was characterized by the use of a python embroidery called   although the python embroidery is not a python snake as defined in the English dictionary but a four-clawed Chinese dragon-like creature. The was derived from the '  in order to differentiate monarchs and subjects; i.e. only the Emperor is allowed to wear the, five-clawed dragon, while his subjects wears '. The  was worn in the Ming and Qing dynasties. They had special status among the Chinese court clothing as they were only second to the . Moreover, their use were restricted, and they were part of a special category of clothing known as , which could only be awarded by the Chinese Emperor (or by the Empress Dowager on the behalf of the Emperor) in the Ming and Qing dynasties, becoming "a sign of imperial favour". People who were bestowed with could not exchange it with or gifted it to other people. They were worn by members of the imperial family below of crown prince, by military and civil officials, and by Official wives. As an official clothing, the were worn by officials during celebration occasions and ceremonial events. They could also be bestowed by the Emperor to people who performed extraordinary services to the empire as rewards, to the members of the Grand Secretariat and to prominent Daoist patriarchs, imperial physicians, tributary countries and local chiefs whose loyalty were considered crucial to secure the borders. The is also used as a form of, theatrical costume, in Chinese opera, where it is typically found in the form of a round-necked robe, known as. In Beijing opera, the used as  is known as .

embroidery design
In ancient China, there is a clear difference between monarchs and subjects; therefore, the Emperor wears the, Chinese dragon patterns, on their clothing called ' while the officials, being the subjects of the Emperor, wear the '. The  embroidery is actually an imaginary creature in the form of a four-clawed Chinese dragon, which was derived from the design of the, the imperial 5-clawed Chinese dragon pattern.

In the Ming dynasty, Bian Yong, the Chief Censor of the Emperor Hongzhi, described the  as having "no horns and legs"; however, during his time:  "the mang robe worn by internal officials (eunuchs) is very similar to the image of the dragon", therefore not fitting the regulations"

Shen Defu also described the  as being similar to the in appearance with the number of their claws as the main difference: "The mang robe is a garment with an image close to a dragon, similar to the dragon robe of the top authority (the emperor), except for the deduction of one claw."

After the Ming dynasty, it was expressed that a (lit. 'Chinese dragon') would be demoted to a  (lit. 'python') if it lost one of its claw.

Shen Defu also explained that the most valued form of  pattern was the  which a frontal view  on the back and front region of the robe; there were other form of  pattern such as the , which faces on the right side.

History
In the Ming dynasty, the was a form of ' along with  and ; therefore, the right to bestow ' was only reserved to the Emperor who would bestow the robes to those he favoured. According to the 《》, the was prescribed for certain officials on specific occasions.

When Emperor Yongle became emperor, he relaxed the clothing regulations for the eunuchs; therefore, the eunuchs around the emperor wore -style robes which were decorated with  patterns and were tied with a (lit. 'Luan belt'), and even the eunuchs who were of high ranks were often found wearing. However, the wearing of by the eunuchs were improper.

According to Shen Defu, during the early reign of Zhengtong, the was bestowed to foreign rulers. In 1447, there was an imperial edict by Emperor Zhengtong which prohibited the production of patterns along with  and  patterns by unauthorized people; it was therefore a capital offence for artisans:

"There are clothing regulations for both officials and commoners. Now some people have custom-made robes embroidered with the prohibited patterns of four-clawed dragon [i.e. mang], five-clawed dragon [i.e. long], flying fish [i.e. feiyu], and “Big Dipper bull” [i.e. douniu]. Put the artisans to death and send their families to frontier garrisons as soldiers. People who wear them are to be punished without pardon"

- Shen Dufu

According to the 《 – lit. 'Miscellaneous notes of Wanli'》by Shen Defu, during this period, eunuchs were parading in the streets of the capital wearing and  while women (especially wives of the elite class) were wearing embroidered robes with designs, such as the,  and   in front of the senior officials. According to Shen Dufu, the sumptuary laws were being trespassed and the fault was that of the Emperor who was failing at regulating the possession robes adorned with imperial insignia.

During the 16th year of Emperor Hongzhi (1504), the customs of bestowing to the Grand Secretariat began.

The Jiajing emperor also bestowed to prominent Daoist patriarchs several times during his reign. According to the Ming shi, in 1530, it was decreed that the Head of the jinyiwei had to wear a red-coloured or  with a  (lit. 'black gauze hat') and a phoenix belt on sacrificial and ceremonial occasions.

In 1538, still under the rule of Emperor Jiajing, gradations of  also stipulated that only ministers from the first to third rank were allowed to wear, which consisted of the , the , and the. The ' patterns on the clothing insignia were also gradated based on a particular rank; according to Shen Defu, the most valued form of ' pattern was the ; other form of  pattern which existed in his period also included the.

In 1578, Great Empress Dowager Li bestowed to Zhang Juzhen on behalf of the Emperor.

During the reign under Emperor Wanli, many were bestowed. According to Xie Zhaozhe in the 《 – lit. 'Five assorted offerings'》, more than 10,000 eunuchs were wearing and jade belts in the Forbidden City. However, the did not become a common form of clothing.

As and
The continued to be worn in the Qing dynasty as part of the Qing dynasty official uniform (either as part of the  or as part of the ) and continued to be worn by only those who were awarded by the Emperor.

The structure of the Manchu worn in the Qing dynasty differed from those worn in the Ming dynasty as the  worn in the Qing dynasty was modified based on the early male clothing of the Manchu, thus retaining the original features while making new changes to the robes; for example, the Manchu  had horse hoof-shaped cuff.

Construction and design
There is also strict regulations on the robes' colour and the numbers of  that were allowed to decorate the :

List of people bestowed with

 * Liu Jian (劉健) (1433–1526), Grand Secretary from 1492 to 1513, was bestowed with a red.
 * Li Dongyang (1447–1516), Grand Secretary from 1494 to 1513, was bestowed with a red.
 * Xie Qian (1450–1531), Grand Secretary from 1495 to 1506 and from 1527 to 1528, was bestowed with a red.
 * Shao Yuanjie (1450–1531), a Daoist patriarch, was bestowed a with a jade belt by Emperor Jiajing in 1536.
 * Zhang Juzhen (1525–1582), a Ming dynasty imperial tutor and senior grand secretary; the were also bestowed to Zhang Juzhen's parents as a symbol of extreme favour.

Theatrical costumes
The, Chinese opera costumes, were made based on the clothing style of the Ming dynasty while also absorbing clothing features of the Song, Yuan, and Qing dynasties. On stage, the theatrical is typically in the appearance of a.

In Chinese opera, the theatrical is the highest of formal, ceremonial robe worn by performers in the roles of emperors, princes, officials (ministers for specific occasions, such as court audience), and generals.

The theatrical has a male and female version; the  patterns on the robes vary and can be found in:  medallions, front-viewed  and flying dragon.

When decorated with flying dragon patterns, the robe is typically also decorated with patterns of waves and mountain peaks. There is also strict regulations on the colours used in the theatrical ; the colours are divided into "upper five colours" and "lower five colours", (bright yellow) colour is exclusively reserved for imperial usage. Other colours included: red.

In Beijing opera
In Beijing opera, the  is known as. The is used to represent the emperor have a dragon with an open mouth, while the dragon used on the  of the ministers and generals have their mouth closed. The dragons looked bold and mighty when used on the of martial officials but gentle and quiet when used in the  of civil officials. There is also other kind of which are specially made for female actresses, laodan, and palace eunuchs.

The colours used in the also have clear symbolism: red means majestic and noble; green means mighty and bold; white represents handsome young people; black is used to represent people who are upright and unconstrained.

Subtypes

 * (lit. 'Arrow python robe') – A in the style of a  for the role of Emperor Zhu Di of Ming invented by Ma Lianliang; it is the combination of an arrow robe and a python robe.

Depictions in entertainment media and literature

 * Chinese opera
 * Jin Ping Mei

Similar clothing

 * Jisün
 * Terlig
 * Yesa
 * Feiyufu
 * Douniufu
 * Dragon robe