Minembwe

Minembwe is a cluster of several villages located in the highlands of the Lulenge, within the Fizi Territory of South Kivu Province in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). It is situated at an altitude of about 2,500 meters above sea level, in a hilly and mountainous region covered with forests, which provides fertile land for agriculture. It lies approximately 150 kilometers southward of Bukavu. The region is interspersed with myriad streams and rivers that flow towards Lake Tanganyika, the second-deepest lake in the world.

Historically, Minembwe was predominantly settled by the Bembe and Buyu peoples; however, the region is renowned for its profound ethnocultural diversity, serving as a nexus for myriad ethnicities such as the Bafuliiru, Banyindu, Bamushi, Baholoholo, Babwari, Bavira, Balega, Bahunde, Banyanga, Bashu, Baamba, Baswaga, and Banyamulenge. Kibembe prevails as the lingua franca, with Swahili and Kinyarwanda also in widespread use, though numerous minority groups continue to converse in their indigenous languages.

Early history and ethnic tensions
Traditionally, the Babembe people predominantly inhabited Minembwe, which functioned as a hub for trade, commerce, and cultural exchange, with people from various ethnic groups converging in the region. During the Belgian colonial era, the Bembe and Buyu communities were integrated into the Fizi Territory, which was subsequentially segmented into five divisions: Itombwe, Lulenge, Mutambala, Ngandja, and Tangani'a. However, post-decolonization, the Itombwe sector was realigned closer to the Mwenga Territory to facilitate more immediate administrative oversight for the indigenous populace.

During the 1920s, swathes of the South and North Kivu's territories were adjudged sparsely populated, prompting the Belgian colonial administrators to enlist labor from extraneous locales to foster regional development. This incitement culminated in the relocation of Banyarwanda to the Kivu highlands from the late 1930s through the 1950s. This demographic shift engendered profound sociocultural ramifications within the region, particularly in Minembwe. Nevertheless, the assimilation process was fraught with discord. Ethnic antagonisms erupted between the Banyarwanda and other indigenous ethnic communities, notably the Babembe, exacerbated by land disputes, resource competition, and politico-strategic rivalries. In the late 1950s, there was a significant influx of Banyarwanda immigrants into the Fizi Territory, particularly in the Lulenge sector. This migration was fueled by political instability in Rwanda and the search for better economic opportunities in neighboring areas. Parenthetically, during the Rwandan Revolution of 1959–1961, the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) settled Rwandan refugees in the sites of Lemera, Mulenge, and Katobo. Many of these refugees ended up dispersing throughout the Lulenge sector and settling in some of the most remote and inaccessible areas of the South and North Kivu regions. The Banyarwanda who settled in Lulenge from the late 1950s to the 1980s, alongside earlier migrants to the eastern Congo Free State in the nineteenth century, collectively known as "Banyamulenge," aspired to establish their own self-governing territory like other ethnic groups. However, they were required to meet criteria set by the Belgian colonial authorities and later upheld by the Congolese state post-independence to be recognized as a distinct ethnic group. These criteria included possessing a native language, a chieftainship to represent the tribe, and a well-defined territory acknowledged by neighboring tribes. Despite their mother tongue being Kinyarwanda, the Banyarwanda lacked both a chieftainship and a defined territory, which disqualified them from being recognized as a Congolese tribe. The designation "Banyamulenge" was not documented in colonial records. Throughout history, "Banyamulenge" were predominantly recognized as "Banyarwanda," denoting their status as migrant with Rwanda origins. It wasn't until the early 1970s that the categorization of Banyamulenge as immigrants from Rwanda ceased during the Mobutu Sese Seko administration.

1972 Ordinance, land acquisitions and identity crisis
In 1972, Barthélémy Bisengimana Rwema, a Tutsi cabinet director under Mobutu during his second republic, promulgated a presidential "Ordinance № 69-096," which collectively granted Zairean nationality to all Banyarwanda. In the same year, Banyarwanda changed their eponym from "Banyarwanda" to "Banyamulenge" to distinguish themselves from recent immigrants from Rwanda. However, this legislation equated both long-settled Banyarwanda populations entitled to Zairean citizenship and recent immigrants, which caused bewilderment among the affected communities. The broad acquisition of Congolese nationality, combined with the land legislation enacted under Zairianisation, enabled influential Tutsis to acquire land, particularly former colonial plantations redistributed by the state. These acquisitions legalized the Tutsi peasantry's settlements in the Kivu region, granting them recognized status. The inability to apply the 1972 Ordinance, due to not meeting the basic criteria, exacerbated tensions and conflicts in the region, with other Congolese tribes perceiving themselves as expropriated by Tutsis. These ethnic tensions threatened national integrity, prompting Congolese political authorities to repeal the "1972 Ordinance" through Law no. 81/002 of June 29, 1981, and, thus, to correct the law regarding the recognition of ethnic communities. Nonetheless, the identity crisis between Banyamulenge and other Congolese tribes was evident, as civil status offices were frequently torched to destroy documents necessary for granting nationality or land to Banyamulenge.

Tensions resurface (1991-1999)
Between 1991 and 1993, ethnic tensions erupted violently during Kivu's representation at the National Sovereign Conference (Conférence Nationale Souveraine) in Kinshasa, aimed at establishing a democratic regime in Zaire. This led to the formation of youth militias initiating attacks and murders in Kivu, but were subsequently halted following the intervention of the Special Presidential Division to restore some semblance of order. At the onset of the Second Congo War, the Banyamulenge allied with Rwandan Tutsi refugees dispersed across Kivu to combat discriminatory nationality and land laws. They aligned with the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) and later with the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (ADFL) and the Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD). Following Mobutu's ousting, the RCD, a Rwandan-backed rebel faction led by Azarias Ruberwa, established Minembwe as an independent Tutsi region in 1999, alongside Bunyakiri in Kalehe Territory.

Ongoing ethnic tensions (2006–present)
The recognition of these two territorial entities instigated ethnic tensions within the transitional government in 2006. The Banyamulenge, having supported AFDL and RCD forces during the Second Congo War, were accused of attacking refugee camps and densely populated villages, committing civilian executions, and engaging in terrorism against Zairean civilians across South and North Kivu, including Bwegera, Luberizi, Luvungi, Katala, Rubenga, Lubarika, Kakumbukumbu, Mutarule, Kagunga, Kiliba, Ndunda, Biriba, Sange, Rwenena, Kahororo, Kamanyola, Lemera, Kidote, Makobola, Kasika, Kilungutwe, Kilungutwe River and Katogota. Consequently, many Congolese perceived the Banyamulenge as invaders encroaching upon their habitats. Conversely, those on the Banyamulenge side argue that they were not given adequate space within the Fizi Territory and are therefore fighting for self-defense. This conflict resulted in the displacement of approximately 140,000 people in May 2019 due to armed skirmishes in Minembwe.

Declaration of Minembwe as commune
In September 2020, Minembwe was designated a rural commune, despite opposition from other ethnic groups who contended that proper legal and administrative procedures were bypassed. The installment of Minembwe as a rural commune and the appointment of Gad Mukiza, a Tutsi, as mayor on September 28, 2020, sparked significant controversy and opposition from other Congolese tribes who assert territorial claims. Many Congolese perceived the declaration of Minembwe as a rural commune as a stratagem for the Banyamulenge to consolidate control over the region. Some critics contended that the move was made under pressure from neighboring countries, particularly Rwanda, long accused of supporting the Banyamulenge.

On October 8, 2020, the initiative to create Minembwe as a rural commune was annulled following a declaration by President Félix Tshisekedi, citing irregularities and aiming to mitigate tensions. Félix Tshisekedi stated: "'For me, the salvation of the people is the supreme law. I cannot leave my people in danger. I have decided to cancel what has been done so far for Minembwe.'"This annulment was met with approval from various groups, including opposition parties and civil society organizations. However, it elicited mixed reactions from the Banyamulenge, who viewed it as an infringement on their rights and a reversal of the progress made in their struggle for recognition and self-determination. Some Banyamulenge leaders and activists accused the government of capitulating to pressure from other ethnic groups and reneging on its promises to safeguard their interests and foster their development. The situation in Minembwe remains volatile, with reports of violence and displacement. In October 2020, the United Nations reported that at least 15 people had been killed and dozens injured in clashes between the Banyamulenge and other groups in the area. The UN also estimated that over 50,000 people had been displaced by the violence. On July 20, 2021, Twiganeho militiamen and their allies attacked the Musika village, located in the southern Basimunyaka groupement in Lulenge. According to several testimonies, fifteen homes of civilians were incinerated, compelling civilian members of the local community to relocate to Runundu and Ilundu villages. Other members of the local communities were also affected and migrated towards the villages of Lumanya and Kwamulima. Two elderly men were immolated in their residence, children were separated from their parents, and a hundred cattle were abducted, according to witnesses in the area. In May 2022, clashes between Ngumino and Mai-Mai Biloze Bishambuke and their allies resulted in nearly five fatalities in Irumba and Ngandura, villages situated 15 kilometers from Minembwe. In July 2022, four civilians were slain in Minembwe by Twiganeho, an insurgent group led by an army deserter Colonel Michel Rukunda, after refusing to join the forced recruitment. In August 2022, dozens of civilians and police officers were taken hostage by Twiganeho in the Minembwe highlands. On January 4, 2023, the Deputy Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo in charge of operations, Chico Tshitambwe, called on the population of Minembwe to dissociate themselves from armed groups. Tshitambwe also invited the militias to lay down their arms and join the PDDRC-S program.

Development opportunities
Being an area built on hills and without subsurface wealth, Minembwe does not present strong development possibilities except for its location as a riparian region which gives it agriculture and fishing development. Lake Tanganyika, situated in the eastern part of the region, offers tremendous fishing potential for Minembwe. Despite strong agricultural and fisheries development, Minembwe has suffered from a lack of improvements in health, access to clean water, lack of roads, and basic civic services.