Mukomuko language

The Mukomuko language (bahaso Mukomuko) is a language in the Minangkabau language family spoken by the Mukomuko people, a subgroup of the Minangkabau people living in Mukomuko Regency in northern Bengkulu that borders West Sumatra. In 1993, there were an estimated 26,000 Mukomuko speakers. Mukomuko is closely related to the Minangkabau language and shares similarities with the Pancung Soal dialect, spoken in the southern part of Pesisir Selatan Regency in West Sumatra. The distribution area of this dialect also extends to the northern part of Mukomuko Regency. Geographically, Mukomuko is situated on the border between Bengkulu and West Sumatra, which fosters interaction between the people of Mukomuko and the Minangkabau. This proximity results in a culturally rich environment, representing the convergence of two or more cultures.

The native inhabitants of northern Mukomuko are the Minangkabau people. Traditionally, culturally, and linguistically, they are closely related to the Pesisir Selatan of West Sumatra. In the past, the Mukomuko region was part of the Pesisir Selatan diaspora of the Minangkabau. In addition to the Minangkabau, the southern part of Mukomuko regency is inhabited by the Pekal people. The Mukomuko region is also a Minangkabau diaspora (rantau) area, often referred to as the Riak nan Berdebur region, along the west coast from Padang to South Bengkulu. However, since the British colonial period, the Mukomuko region has been politically separated from West Sumatra. Since then, the Mukomuko people have been separated from their relatives in West Sumatra, which continued to the Dutch colonial period, the Japanese occupation, and into the independence era. Centuries of separation have resulted in the Mukomuko language gradually diverging from standard Minangkabau, particularly in its vocabulary. However, despite these changes, mutual intelligibility between the two dialects generally persists.

The Minangkabau language has been regarded as the lingua franca in northern Bengkulu, exerting its influence on neighboring languages like Bengkulu Malay, particularly in terms of phonology and vocabulary.

Classification
Mukomuko belongs to the Malayic languages branch of the Malayo-Polynesian subgroup of the Austronesian language family, which also includes Malay and standard Indonesian. Linguistically, it shares a strong resemblance with the Minangkabau language, particularly the Pesisir Selatan dialect spoken in the neighboring Pesisir Selatan Regency. Lexically, the Mukomuko language shares approximately 86% to 90% of its vocabulary with the Pesisir Selatan dialect. Due to these linguistic similarities, some research suggests classifying Mukomuko as a dialect of Minangkabau.

Geographical distribution and usage
The majority of Mukomuko speakers lives in North Mukomuko District and South Mukomuko District of the Mukomuko Regency in northern Bengkulu. The capital of North Mukomuko District is Mukomuko, while the capital of South Mukomuko District is Ipuh. North Mukomuko District comprises 39 hamlets, and South Mukomuko District comprises 30 hamlets. In addition to Mukomuko, the community in these districts also speaks Javanese and Kerinci. Javanese is primarily spoken by transmigrants from Java, whereas Kerinci is spoken in the hamlets of Sungai Ipuh, Pondok Baru, and Sungai Jarinjing in North Mukomuko District. The geographical range of Mukomuko language speakers extends from Pondok Suguh hamlet in the south to Lubuk Pinang hamlet in the north.

Mukomuko generally only functions as a social language. It is used within family and community environments in daily life in informal settings. During wedding ceremonies, public meetings, mosque sermons, and other ceremonies, the Mukomuko people tend to code-switch between Indonesian and Mukomuko. Meanwhile, in government offices, schools, and formal settings, Indonesian is used. However, in the early grades of elementary school, teachers from the Mukomuko area often use the Mukomuko language to present the material. In markets and among the general public, the Mukomuko language is used among members of the Mukomuko community, while between people from different areas, a mix of Mukomuko and Indonesian or other regional languages is used.

As of 2024, recognizing the importance of preserving local languages, the regional government of Mukomuko has initiated the inclusion of regional languages such as Rejang, Mukomuko, and Serawai in the school curriculum.

Vowels
Like other Malayic languages, there are five different vowels in Mukomuko, which are /i/, /e/, /a/, /u/, and /o/. The Mukomuko language mostly follows the standard Indonesian orthography. The table below illustrates the vowel chart of the Mukomuko language.

Consonants
There are twenty consonants in Mukomuko, which are /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /ɡ/, /ʔ/, /t͡ɕ/, /d͡ʑ/, /ɣ/, /r/, /s/, /l/, /m/, /n/, /h/, /ŋ/, /ɲ/, /w/, and /j/. The table below illustrates the consonant chart of the Mukomuko language.

Orthographic note: The sounds are represented orthographically by their symbols as above, except:


 * // is written ⟨c⟩
 * // is written ⟨gh⟩
 * // is written ⟨j⟩
 * // is written ⟨ng⟩
 * // is written ⟨ny⟩
 * // is written ⟨y⟩

Diphthongs
In Mukomuko, two types of diphthongs are found: descending diphthongs and ascending diphthongs. The descending diphthongs include:


 * /ia̯/: keriang ('dry'), petiang ('important')
 * /ea̯/: loceang ('bell'), obeang ('screwdriver')
 * /ua̯/: jatuang ('heart'), gunuang ('mountain')
 * /oa̯/: panoloang ('helper'), tekoang ('can')

The ascending diphthongs include:

In addition, there seem to be sounds similar to diphthongs in some basic vocabulary. These sounds are found within a single syllable and are always followed by a consonant. The most common consonants that follow these sounds are nasal consonants, namely /ŋ/, /n/, and /m/. Examples are:
 * /oj/: ploy ('door cloth'), loyh ('loose')
 * /aw/: suraw ('mosque'), kebaw ('buffalo')
 * /aj/: makay ('use'), ratay ('chain')
 * /uj/: kabuyh ('escape'), kakuyh ('outhouse')


 * /ie̯/: anjieng ('dog'), gajien ('salary')
 * /ue̯/: minuen ('drinks'), acuen ('poison')

Stress
Stress in Mukomuko can be categorized into word stress, which includes stress in base words, reduplicated words, compound words, and affixed words, and sentence stress, which includes basic sentence stress and stress in coordinated compound sentences.

Word stress in Mukomuko is not phonemic. Phonetically, three types of stress can be distinguished: primary stress [ˈ], secondary stress [ˌ], and weak stress which is not marked. Primary stress occurs on the final syllable of the word, secondary stress on the initial syllable, and weak stress on other syllables. Primary stress in base words is placed on the final syllable, secondary stress on the initial syllable, while other syllables receive weak stress. Reduplicated words receive primary stress on the final syllable of the second word, secondary stress on the final syllable of the first word, and other syllables receive weak stress. The distribution of stress in compound words is similar to that in reduplicated words, with primary stress on the final syllable of the second word, secondary stress on the final syllable of the first word, and weak stress on the other syllables. Affixed words receive primary stress on the final syllable, secondary stress on the initial syllable, and weak stress on the other syllables. Lastly, sentence stress is the strong emphasis placed on the emphasized words in a sentence.

Grammar
Along with Indonesian, Malay, and other related languages, the word order in Mukomuko is typically subject-verb-object (SVO). While there are notable exceptions, the grammar structure of the Mukomuko language shares many similarities with Indonesian and Malay.

Affixes
There are three types of affixes in Mukomuko: prefixes, suffixes, and infixes. Similar to Malay, Mukomuko words are composed of a root or a root plus derivational affixes. The root is the primary lexical unit of a word and is usually bisyllabic, of the shape CV(C)CV(C). Affixes are "glued" onto roots (which are either nouns or verbs) to alter or expand the primary meaning associated with a given root, effectively generating new words, for example, baco ('to read') may become mambaco ('reading'), mambacokan ('reading for'), dibaco ('being read'), pembaco ('reader'), bacoan ('reading material'), terbaco ('accidentally read').

Prefixes
The prefixes found in Mukomuko are N-, ba-, di-, ta-, paN-, and sa-.

The combination of the prefix N- with base words appears in various forms, such as mang-, ma-, many-, m-, and n-. These variations of the N- form are called allomorphs of the N- prefix, and their occurrence is caused by the influence of the phoneme that begins the base word.


 * N- + ambiq ('take'): mangambiq ('taking')
 * N- + akeq ('carry'): mangakeq ('carrying')

The attachment of the prefix ba- to base words appears in two forms, namely ba- and bagh. These variations are considered allomorphs of the ba- prefix, and the variation is caused by the influence of the phoneme that begins the base word.


 * ba- + ghiang ('happy'): baghiang ('be happy')
 * ba- + janjing ('promise'): bajanjing ('to promise')

The attachment of the prefix di- to base words only appears in one form, which is di-.


 * di- + dendo ('fine'): didendo ('fined')
 * di- + jua ('sell'): dijua ('for sale')

The attachment of the prefix ka- to base words only appears in one form, which is ka-.


 * ka- + tuo ('old'): katuo ('leader')
 * ka- + duo ('two'): kaduo ('second')

The attachment of the prefix ta- to base words only appears in one form, which is ta-.


 * ta- + acam ('threat'): taancam ('threatened')
 * ta- + dekeq ('close'): tadekeq ('closest')

The attachment of the prefix paN- appears in several forms, namely pam-, pan-, pany-, pang-, pange-, and pa-. These variations are considered allomorphs of the paN- prefix, and the variation is caused by the influence of the phoneme that begins the base word.


 * paN- + beling ('buy'): pambeling ('buyer')
 * paN- + dapeq ('obtain'): pandapeq ('opinion')

Lastly, the attachment of the prefix sa- to base words only appears in one form, which is sa-.


 * sa- + pinggan ('plate'): sapinggan ('a plate')
 * sa- + dikiq ('little'): sadikiq ('a little')

Suffixes
The suffixes present in Mukomuko are only -an and -nyo. Imperative meanings in this language are not expressed through suffixation, but rather through other means, such as the use of the particle -lah or the prefix di-. For example:


 * Sambalah udang ko! ('Add sambal to this prawn!')
 * Hitamlah alis mato ban! ('Blacken your eyebrows!')

The position of the suffixes -an and -nyo is located at the end of the base word. For example:


 * aghing ('day') + -an: aghian ('daily')
 * paneh ('hot') + -nyo: panehnyo ('it's so hot')

Infixes
In the Mukomuko language, there are three infixes, namely -ar-, -al-, and -am-. Word formation through suffixes on base words is very limited and only occurs in certain words. For example:


 * -ar- + suIieng ('whistle'): sarulieng ('flute')
 * -am- + geta ('shake'): gameta ('shaking')

Reduplication
The are four types of reduplication in Mukomuko, which are full reduplication, partial reduplication, reduplication combined with the process of affixation and reduplication with phoneme changes. Examples of full reduplication are:


 * makan-makan ('eating out')
 * malung-malung ('shy-shy')
 * sesah-sesah ('wash-wash')

Examples of partial reduplication are:


 * N- + caghing ('look'): macaghing-caghing ('look around')
 * ba- + kupu ('gather'): bakupu-kupu ('gather together')
 * ta- + senyum ('smile'): tasenyum-senyum ('smiling')

Examples of reduplication combined with the process of affixation are:


 * sa- + cepeq ('fast') + -nyo: sacepeq-cepeqnyo ('as fast as possible')
 * sa- + tingging ('high') + -nyo: satingging-tinggingnyo ('as high as possible')
 * sa- + lueh ('wide') + -nyo: salueh-luehnyo ('as wide as possible')

Examples of reduplication with phoneme changes are:


 * asa-usu ('origin')
 * bulaq-baliq ('back and forth')
 * kedap-kedip ('blinking')

Nouns
In Mukomuko, nouns can be identified from two perspectives: semantic and syntactic. Semantically, nouns refer to humans, animals, objects, and concepts or ideas. Words like imam ('priest'), jawing ('cow'), bining ('wife'), and pamalaih ('lazy person'), for instance, are nouns because they refer to humans, animals, objects, and concepts or ideas.

Nouns tend to occupy the functions of subject, object, or complement in a sentence. For example:


 * Kaqkung malopeq ka batang aie. ('Frog jumps into the river')
 * Baq mangambiq kayung. ('Dad is taking the wood')

In the example above, the words kaqkung ('frog') and kayung ('wood') are nouns, because each of these words fulfills the function of subject, object and complement.

Nouns can be preceded by the negator bukan ('not'). For example:


 * Itung bukan jawing. ('That is not a cow')

In the sentence above, the word jawing ('cow') is classified as a noun.

Generally, nouns can be followed by adjectives either directly or with the intermediary word na ('that'). For example, the words sapelo ('papaya') and giging ('teeth') are nouns because they can combine to form sapelo kuning ('yellow papaya') and giging putih ('white teeth') or sapelo na kuning ('papaya that is yellow') and giging na putih ('teeth that are white').

Nouns in Mukomuko can be either base nouns or derived nouns. Base nouns can be general or specific in nature. For instance, gambar ('picture'), malam ('night'), and meja ('table') are general base nouns, while adiq ('younger sibling'), batang ('stem'), and iceq ('grain') are specific base nouns.

Lastly, in derived forms, nouns can receive the affixes ka-, pa-, -ar-, -al-, and -am-. Words such as katuo ('leader'), palupo ('forgetful person'), saruling ('flute'), gelembung ('bubble'), and kamunieng ('murraya paniculata ') are examples of derived nouns that have received these affixes.

Adjectives
Adjectives can be modified by comparison markers such as kurang ('less'), lebih ('more'), and paling ('most'). Examples are kurang eloq ('less good'), lebih kumuh ('more dirty'), and paling tinggi ('the tallest'). Adjectives can also be intensified with modifiers like sangat ('very') and nian ('extremely'). Examples are sangat pandi ('very foolish') and tipih nian ('extremely thin'). Adjectives can be negated with the negator idaq ('not'), for example, idaq ghusaq ('not broken'), idaq ghaming ('not noisy'), and idalq lama ('not long'). Adjectives can be repeated with the prefix sa- and the suffix -nyo, such as samasin-masinnyo ('as salty as it gets'), sagedang-gedangnyo ('as big as it gets'), and sakughuieh-kughuiehnyo ('as sharp as it gets').

In addition, adjectives in Mukomuko can be monomorphemic or polymorphemic. Words like masin ('salty'), gedang ('big'), ghaming ('noisy'), tingging ('tall'), eloq ('beautiful'), and tipih ('thin') are examples of monomorphemic adjectives. Polymorphemic adjectives can take the form of reduplication or compound words. Words like sighah-sighah ('red-red'), malung-malung ('shy-shy'), gedang-gedang ('big-big'), putih-putih ('white-white'), ghaiin-ghaiin ('diligent-diligent'), and tingging-tingging ('tall-tall') are examples of polymorphemic adjectives. Meanwhile, adjectives in compound word forms include gedang hating ('big-hearted'), kereh kapalo ('stubborn-headed'), gedang mulut ('big-mouthed'), begheq hating ('heavy-hearted'), itam manih ('dark-sweet'), and aluih buding ('gentle-minded').

Adverbs
In Mukomuko, adverbs can also be monomorphemic or polymorphemic. Some adverbs are formed through affixation. Words like sangat ('very'), hinyo ('only'), capeq ('immediately'), jo ('just'), nian ('extremely'), talalung ('too much'), hapieng ('almost'), jaghang ('rarely'), coq ('often'), mukien ('maybe'), and teruih ('always') are examples of monomorphemic adverbs. Adverbs can also appear in reduplicated forms, such as cepeq-cepeq ('firmly'), lambeq-lambeq ('slowly'), noq-noq ('quietly'), and eloq-eloq ('carefully'). Then, words like saeloqnyo ('ideally'), sabenanyo ('actually'), besonyo ('usually'), betuqnyo ('apparently'), and ghasonyo ('feels like') are adverbs in affixed forms.

Personal pronouns
This table shows an overview over the most commonly and widely used pronouns of the Mukomuko language. The first person singular pronouns are ambo, mbo, and mbo. The word ambo, meaning 'I' or 'me', is used in both formal and informal situations. In other words, the usage of ambo in speech is common. The mbo form is used to indicate possession. However, to express possession, the word ambo is more frequently used, as in jawing ambo ('my cow'), ghumah ambo ('my house'), and oto ambo ('my car'). The word mbo also substitutes for ambo, and in its usage, ambo is the one more commonly used. The first person plural pronouns are kaming, kito, and awaq, which all means 'we'. The word kaming is used in speech that refers to conversations with others on the speaker's side. Meanwhile, the words kito and awaq are used in speech that refers to both the speaker and the listener being addressed. The usage of the kito and awaq personas does not seem to indicate any difference in meaning, as both words can substitute for each other in the same context.

The second person singular pronoun is aban or ban. In context, the persona ban tends to indicate possession. However, aban is also often used to indicate possession. Additionally, at the beginning of sentences, aban frequently appears. However, in casual and less formal conversations, the position of aban at the beginning of sentences is often replaced by ban. The second person plural pronouns are kamung ('you all') and aban kelagalo ('all of you').

The third person singular pronouns are inyo ('he' or 'she') and yo ('he/she' or '-nya'). The third person plural pronouns are ughang tung and nyo, meaning 'they'. The usage of both types of third person pronouns can be interchangeable.

Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns in Mukomuko can be distinguished into general demonstrative pronouns and temporal demonstrative pronouns. General demonstrative pronouns include iko ('this') and itung ('that'). Referentially, the word iko refers to a reference close to the speaker, while itung refers to a reference far from the speaker. The usage of both types of demonstrative pronouns in sentences demonstrates the following. First, both pronouns may occur at the beginning, middle, and end of sentences. Second, at the beginning, middle, and end of sentences, the word iko can take the form iko and also ko, especially in somewhat rapid speech, while the word itung always takes the form itung at the beginning of a sentence, and usually takes the form tung if appearing in the middle or at the end of a sentence. For example:


 * Iko/ko unggeh ambo ('That is my bird')
 * Itung/tung jawing sepo? ('Whose cow is that?')

Temporal demonstrative pronouns include siko ('here') and sinon ('there'). The word siko refers to a nearby place, while the word sinon refers to a place far from the speaker. As temporal demonstrative pronouns, the words siko and sinon often combine with directional prepositions: di ('at'), ke ('to'), and daghing ('from'), thus becoming di siko, ke siko, daghing siko, and di sinon, ke sinon, daghing sinon. Additionally, there are also the words cemiko ('like this'), betugtu ('like that'), and modeko ('like that') which can be classified as demonstrative pronouns. These three pronouns refer to the meaning of 'thing' or 'matter'. The meaning of the pronoun modeko seems to encompass the meanings of both the pronouns cemiko and betugtu.

Interrogative Pronouns
In speech, interrogative pronouns are used because the speaker wants to obtain information from the listener. The required information may concern people, things, choices, reasons, time, place, manner, tools, or companionship. Related to this, the use of various interrogative pronouns depends on what information is needed. The types of interrogative pronouns in Mukomuko are sepo ('who'), apo ('what'), mano ('which'), ngapo ('why'), pabilo ('when'), ke mana ('where to'), di mano ('where'), daghing mano ('from where'), dengan apo ('with what'), camano ('how'), and dengan sepo ('with whom').

Dialects
The Mukomuko language has two dialects, which are the northern dialect and the southern dialect. The northern dialect is spoken by speakers in the city of Mukomuko and its surrounding areas bordering West Sumatra, while the southern dialect is spoken in the southern part of Mukomuko regency bordering North Bengkulu regency. Both dialect speakers consider the northern dialect to be the prestige dialect because their ancestors originally inhabited the northern region.

The differences between the two dialects are evident in phonetics and vocabulary variations. Phonetic variations between the two dialects involve systematic sound changes. Firstly, the sound [-it] at the end of words in the northern dialect changes to [-ik]. Secondly, the sound [-ir] at the end of words in the Northern dialect changes to [gh] in the southern dialect. Thirdly, the sound [g] at the beginning of words in the northern dialect changes to [gh] in the Southern dialect. Fourthly, the sound [-ut] at the end of words in the Nnrthern dialect changes to [-uq] in the southern dialect.

Furthermore, there are notable vocabulary distinctions between the two dialects. The following table presents a sample of words that exhibit differences between them: The differences between the two dialects can be influenced by other languages. The southern dialect is more influenced by other languages due to community mobility and the presence of transmigrants from other regions such as Java.

Vocabulary
Mukomuko vocabulary has been heavily influenced by the Minangkabau, to the extent that it is now considered a dialect of Minangkabau. It is estimated that 90% of Mukomuko's vocabulary is derived from Minangkabau, specifically the Pesisir Selatan dialect. In addition, Mukomuko has also absorbed words from standard Indonesian, the official language of Indonesia, as well as Javanese brought by transmigrants from Java. There is a slight difference in vocabulary between the Mukomuko dialect spoken in the northern part of Mukomuko Regency and that spoken in the southern part, although they remain generally mutually intelligible. The table below provides examples of common Mukomuko vocabulary used on a daily basis in both the northern and southern dialects, along with their Minangkabau, Indonesian, and English translations.

Literature
Like the Minangkabau people, the people of Mukomuko are also renowned for their literary works, particularly their well-known oral literature. Oral literature in Mukomuko refers to a traditional form of storytelling that is passed down verbally. This type of literature is typically old, anonymous, and features a traditional style with content that is both captivating and reflective of a society that existed before the advent of writing. Mukomuko's oral literature embodies these characteristics: it is transmitted orally, is of ancient origin, lacks known authorship, and portrays the cultural products of Mukomuko society from the past. This oral tradition is expressed in both prose and poetry. Existing prose forms of Mukomuko's oral literature include folk tales such as Dendam Tajelo, Unggen Bemban, Gadih Basanai, Jodah Sarabing, and Bujang Tuo.

Below is an example of the traditional Mukomuko Gurindam, a type of irregular verse form of poetry renowned throughout the Malay world. It is presented alongside its Indonesian and English translations:

Note: 'Maleoboro' refers to Fort Marlborough, a British fort in Bengkulu City.