Paiwan language

Paiwan (Vinuculjan, IPA: ) is a native language of Taiwan, spoken in the south of Taiwan, and spoken as a first language by the ethnic Paiwan, a Taiwanese indigenous people. Paiwan is a Formosan language of the Austronesian language family. It is also one of the national languages of Taiwan.

Dialects
Paiwan variants are seen divided into the following dialect zones by Ferrell.


 * A1 – southern and central
 * Kuɬaɬau (Kulalao) _ used in Ferrell's 1982 Paiwan Dictionary due to its widespread intelligibility and preservation of various phonemic distinctions; also spoken in Tjuabar Village, Taitung County, where Tjariḍik and "Tjuabar" (closely related to Tjavuaɬi) are also spoken.
 * Kapaiwanan (Su-Paiwan)
 * Tjuaqatsiɬay (Kachirai) – southernmost dialect
 * A2 – central
 * Ɬarəkrək (Riki-riki)
 * Patjavaɬ (Ta-niao-wan)
 * B1 – northernmost
 * Tjukuvuɬ (Tokubun)
 * Kaviangan (Kapiyan)
 * B2 – northwestern
 * Tjaɬakavus (Chalaabus, Lai-yi)
 * Makazayazaya (Ma-chia)
 * B3 – east-central
 * Tjariḍik (Charilik)
 * B4 – eastern
 * Tjavuaɬi (Taimali)
 * Tjakuvukuvuɬ (Naibon, Chaoboobol)

This classification were thought to be corrected by Cheng 2016 as below:

Note: A village unnoted of Vuculj/Ravar is by default placed under Vuculj here.
 * Paridrayan group (Ravar)
 * Paridrayan /pariɖajan/
 * Tjailjaking
 * Tineljepan
 * Cavak
 * Tjukuvulj
 * Timur group
 * Timur
 * Tavatavang
 * Vuljulju
 * Sagaran (Ravar-Vuculj mixture)
 * Makazayazaya branch
 * 'ulaljuc
 * Idra
 * Masilidj
 * Makazayazaya
 * Paljulj
 * Kazangiljan
 * Masisi
 * Kazazaljan
 * 'apedang
 * Kaviyangan
 * Puljetji
 * Tjuaqau
 * Eastern branch
 * Paumeli
 * Tjulitjulik
 * Viljauljaulj
 * Kaljataran
 * Ka'aluan
 * Tjua'au
 * Sapulju
 * Kingku
 * Djumulj
 * Tjukuvulj
 * Tjagaraus branch
 * Payuan
 * Padain
 * Piuma
 * Raxekerek branch (west)
 * Raxekerek
 * Kinaximan
 * Tjevecekadan
 * Raxekerek branch (east)
 * Tjahiljik
 * Tjacuqu
 * Tjatjigelj
 * Tjaqup
 * Rahepaq
 * Kaljapitj
 * Qeceljing
 * Pacavalj
 * Kuvaxeng
 * Utjaqas
 * Ljupetj
 * Tjala'avus branch
 * Tjalja'avus
 * Calasiv
 * Tjana'asia
 * Pucunug
 * Vungalid
 * Pailjus

Phonology
Kuljaljau Paiwan has 23–24 consonants ( is found only in loanwords, and is uncommon) and 4 vowels. Unlike many other Formosan languages that have merged many Proto-Austronesian phonemes, Paiwan preserves most Proto-Austronesian phonemes and is thus highly important for reconstruction purposes.

The four Paiwan vowels are. is written $⟨e⟩$ in the literature.

In Northern Paiwan the palatal consonants have been lost, though this is recent and a few conservative speakers maintain them as allophonic variants (not as distinct phonemes). is robust, unlike in other Paiwan dialects where its status is uncertain, as it derives from *q.

Younger speakers tend to pronounce as. Fricative is characteristic of Mudan village; elsewhere is Southern Paiwan it tends to be a trill, though it still varies. Word-initial *k has become.

Pronouns
The Paiwan personal pronouns below are from Ferrell (1982).

Function words
Paiwan has three construction markers, which are also known as relational particles.


 * 1) a – shows equational relationship; personal sing. = ti, personal plural = tia
 * 2) nua – shows genitive / partitive relationship; personal sing. = ni, personal plural = nia
 * 3) tua – shows that the relationship is neither equational nor genitive; personal sing. = *tjai, personal plural = tjaia

Other words include:
 * i – be at, in (place)
 * nu – if when
 * na – already (definitely) done/doing or have become
 * uri – definite future negative marker
 * uri – definite future marker
 * ɬa – emphasis, setting apart

Affixed adverbials include:
 * -tiaw
 * nu-tiaw: tomorrow
 * ka-tiaw: yesterday
 * -sawni
 * nu-sawni: soon, in a little while (future)
 * ka-sawni: a little while ago
 * -ngida
 * nu-ngida: when? (future)
 * ka-ngida: when? (past)

Interjections include the following:
 * ui – yes
 * ini – no (not do)
 * neka – no, not (not exist)
 * ai – oh! (surprise, wonder)
 * ai ḍivá – alas!
 * uá – oh! (surprise, taken aback)
 * ai ḍaḍá – ouch! (pain)

Verbs
Paiwan verbs have 4 types of focus.


 * 1) Agent/Actor
 * 2) Object/Goal/Patient
 * 3) Referent: spatial/temporal locus, indirect object, beneficiary
 * 4) Instrument/Cause/Motivation/Origin

The following verbal affixes are used to express varying degrees of volition or intent, and are arranged below from highest to lowest intention.


 * 1) ki- (intentional)
 * 2) pa- (intentional)
 * 3) -m- (volitionally ambiguous)
 * 4) si- (volitionally ambiguous)
 * 5) ma- (non-intentional)
 * 6) se- (non-intentional)

Paiwan verbs can also take on the following non-derivational suffixes.
 * -anga: "certainly," "truly doing"
 * -angata: "definitely" (emphatic)
 * -anga: "still, yet, continuing to"

Affixes
The Paiwan affixes below are from the Kulalao dialect unless stated otherwise, and are sourced from Ferrell (1982).


 * Prefixes
 * ka-: used as an inchoative marker with some stems; past marker
 * ka- -an: principal, main
 * kaɬa- -an: time/place characterized by something
 * ma-ka-: go past, via; having finished
 * pa-ka-: go/cause to go by way of (something/place)
 * ka-si-: come from
 * ken(e)-: eat, drink, consume
 * ki-: get, obtain
 * ku-: my; I (as agent of non-agent focus verb)
 * ɬa-: belonging to a given [plant/animal] category
 * ɬe-: to go in the direction of
 * ɬia-: (have) come to be in/at
 * li-: have quality of
 * ma-: be affected by, be in condition of (involuntary)
 * mare-: having reciprocal relationship
 * mare-ka-: in some general category
 * maɬe-: number of persons
 * me-: agent marker usually involving change of status (used with certain verbs)
 * mere-: be gigantic, super-
 * mi-: agent marker that is usually intransitive (used with certain verbs)
 * mi- -an: pretend, claim
 * mu-: agent marker (certain verbs)
 * ka-na- -anga: every
 * pa-: to cause to be/occur
 * pe-: emerge, come into view
 * pi-: put in/on; do something to
 * pu-: have or produce; acquire
 * pu- -an: place where something is put or kept
 * ma-pu-: do nothing except ...
 * ra-: having to do with
 * r-m-a-: do at/during
 * r-m-a- -an: do at/in
 * sa-: wish to; go to, in direction of; have odor, quality, flavor of
 * pa-sa-: transfer something to; nearly, be on point of doing
 * ki-sa-: use, utilize, employ
 * na-sa-: perhaps, most likely is
 * san(e)-: construct, work on/in
 * ki-sane(e)-: become/act as; one who acts as
 * ru-: do frequently/habitually; have many of
 * se-: people of (village/nation); have quality of; occur suddenly/unexpectedly/unintentionally
 * s-ar-e-: be in state/condition of (involuntary)
 * si-: be instrument/cause/beneficiary of; instrument focus marker; belonging to certain time in past
 * ma-si-: carry, transport
 * su-: your; you (agent of non-agent focus verb); leave, remove, desist from
 * ki-su-: remove or have removed from oneself
 * ta-: past marker
 * tu-: similar to, like
 * ma-ru-: be dissimilar but of same size
 * tja-: our, we (inclusive); more, to a greater extent, further
 * ki-tja-: take along for use
 * tjaɬa- -an: most, -est
 * tjara-: be definitely
 * tjaɬu-: reach/extend as far as
 * tjari-: furthest, utmost
 * tja-u-: to have just done
 * tje-: choose to do at/from
 * ka-tje- -an: containing
 * tji-: used mainly in plant/animal species names (non-Kulalao frozen affix)
 * tji-a-: be/remain at
 * tju-: do/use separately; be/do at certain place
 * m-uri-: search for


 * Infixes
 * -aɬ-, -al-, -ar-: having sound or quality of; involving use of; non-Kulalao
 * -ar-: do indiscriminately, on all sides; non-Kulalao
 * -m-: agent or actor; -n- following /p/, /b/, /v/, /m/; m- before vowel-initial words
 * -in-: perfective marker, action already begun or accomplished, object or product of past action; in- before vowel-initial words


 * Suffixes
 * -an: specific location in time/space; specific one/type; referent focus
 * -en: object/goal of action; object focus
 * -aw, -ay: projected or intended action, referent focus
 * -u: agent focus (most subordinate clauses); most peremptory imperative
 * -i: object focus (most subordinate clauses); polite imperative
 * -ɬ: things in sequence; groupings; durations of time

The following affixes are from the Tjuabar dialect of Paiwan, spoken in the northwest areas of Paiwan-occupied territory (Comparative Austronesian Dictionary 1995).


 * Nouns
 * -aḷ-, -alʸ- 'tiny things'
 * -in- 'things made from plant roots'
 * -an 'place' (always used with another affix)
 * mar(ə)- 'a pair of' (used for humans only)
 * pu- 'rich'
 * ḳay- 'vegetation'
 * sə- 'inhabitants'
 * cua- 'name of a tribe'


 * Verbs
 * -aŋa 'already done'
 * ka- 'to complete'
 * kə- 'to do something oneself'
 * ki- 'to do something to oneself'
 * kisu- 'to get rid of'
 * kicu- 'to do something separately'
 * maCa- 'to do something reciprocally' (where C indicates the initial consonant of the stem)
 * mə- 'to experience, to be something'
 * pa- 'to cause someone to do something'
 * pu- 'to produce, to get something'
 * sa- 'to be willing to do something'
 * calʸu- 'to arrive at'


 * Adjectives
 * ma- 'being'
 * na- 'with the quality of'
 * səcalʸi- 'very'
 * ca- 'more than'