Revolt of Abd al-Salam

The Revolt of Abd al-Salam (Tāwāyēn Abd al-Salam) was a rebellion against the Sokoto Caliphate, driven by perceived bias against the Hausawa. The revolt was led by Mallam Abd al-Salam, a Hausa scholar who had been among the leaders of the Sokoto Revolution that led to the establishment of the caliphate. As time went on, he grew disillusioned with the rewards he received compared to other leaders, many of whom were of Fulbe ethnicity.

This revolt gained momentum during the rule of Sultan Muhammad Bello, the second Sultan of the Sokoto Caliphate, but its roots go back before the death of Usman dan Fodio, the founder and spiritual leader of the caliphate. Abd al-Salam's discontent with the perceived preferential treatment of the Fulbe leaders and his sense of being inadequately rewarded led him to spearhead this rebellion against the Caliphate's authority.

Abd al-Salam's rebellion found support primarily among the Hausa people who shared his grievances of unfair treatment under the Sokoto Caliphate. Many of his followers and fellow rebels belonged to the Hausa ethnic group, and they too felt marginalized and disadvantaged within the caliphate's administration. Additionally, the ranks of the Hausa rebels included individuals who had previously formed the aristocracy of the Hausa kingdoms before the establishment of the Sokoto Caliphate. Fleeing their lands to escape the authority of the caliphate, these rebels joined Abd al-Salam's revolt, seeking to challenge the dominance of the Fulbe leaders and regain their autonomy. The revolt of Abd al-Salam and his fellow Hausa rebels represented a significant challenge to the Sokoto Caliphate's authority, as they sought to address perceived inequalities and reclaim their political rights within the realm.

Before the Sokoto revolution
During the early 19th century, a momentous revolution swept across Hausaland, led by Shehu Usman dan Fodio, a highly esteemed Fulani scholar. This revolution, or jihad, began in the Hausa kingdom of Gobir. Tensions between the followers of Usman dan Fodio and the aristocracy of Gobir eventually escalated into hostilities. These conflicts persisted over the reigns of three Gobir kings until they eventually evolved into full-scale war during the rule of King Yunfa. The revolution aimed to bring about religious and social reforms, and it had a profound impact on the political and cultural landscape of Hausaland.

Abd al-Salam ibn Ibrahim, a prominent Hausa disciple of Shehu Usman dan Fodio, gained a significant following of his own. In the 1790s, he set up camp near the house of the Shehu in Degel and studied under him. He called this camp “Dār as-salām” (“House of Peace”) and further changed his name from Mikhail to Abd al-Salam ("Slave of Peace").

However, in 1797, he encountered difficulties with Nafata, the predecessor of King Yunfa. These issues led Abd al-Salam to flee Gobir and seek refuge in the neighboring Kingdom of Kebbi, settling in the town of Gimbana. Not long after Nafata's death, Yunfa ascended to the throne and demanded that Abd al-Salam return to Gobir to face judgment. In response, Abd al-Salam defiantly refused Yunfa's command. In an attempt to enforce his order, Yunfa then directed Shehu Usman dan Fodio to bring back his student for punishment. However, Shehu Usman refused to comply with Yunfa's request.

In 1804, Yunfa dispatched an expedition to Gimbana to apprehend Abd al-Salam. The Gobir army launched a raid on the town, looting and pillaging it, and taking prisoners. However, Abd al-Salam managed to escape safely, finding refuge in a nearby Fulani fortress. The Gobirawa soldiers then approached the fortress, demanding Abd al-Salam's surrender, but the Fulani defenders refused to comply. Unable to capture Abd al-Salam, the Gobirawa soldiers returned to their base in Alkalawa, the capital of Gobir. Along their way back, they encountered some followers of Shehu Usman who demanded the release of the prisoners taken during the raid on Gimbana. The Gobirawa released the prisoners, much to the anger of Yunfa when he heard the news. The Shehu, too, was unaware of this event, and he feared that such actions could escalate the conflict with Yunfa.

Indeed, in response to the escalating tensions and confrontations, King Yunfa ordered Shehu Usman to leave Gobir along with his family. However, Usman was unwilling to leave without his community and followers who had gathered around him. Refusing to comply with the king's order, Shehu Usman and his community decided to embark on the hijra out of the kingdom. This marked the pivotal moment that initiated the Sokoto Revolution.

Under the Sokoto Caliphate
After the hijra, Shehu Usman dan Fodio was widely recognized as the Amir al-mu'minin by the Muslim community that had joined him from various parts of Hausaland, including Abd al-Salam. Usman's leadership gained widespread support, and he became the central figure around whom the movement rallied. Usman distributed flags to several Muslim scholars, who were predominantly of Fulani descent. These scholars were entrusted with leading jihad campaigns in different regions to expand the influence of the caliphate. By 1809, the Sokoto Caliphate had achieved significant success, as evidenced by the fall of Alkalawa and the defeat of King Yunfa. At this point, the caliphate encompassed the entire Hausaland region, extended into parts of Bornu and Fombina (Adamawa), and even expanded south of Hausaland, exerting its authority and influence over a vast area.

After the establishment of the Sokoto Caliphate, Shehu Usman dan Fodio divided the vast territory into two administrative regions. He entrusted the western part to his brother Abdullahi, while the eastern part was under the control of his son, Muhammad Bello. Additionally, Shehu Usman appointed Abd al-Salam to oversee seven districts within Abdullahi's portion of the caliphate with the largest being Sabiyel (in modern-day Aliero, Kebbi state). However, Abd al-Salam felt that he deserved more recognition and authority due to his significant commitment to the jihad. Feeling discontented, he decided to expand his influence by force, seeking to obtain more land and power through military means. When Abdullahi learned of Abd al-Salam's intentions, he warned him to stop his actions, but Abd al-Salam disregarded the warning and continued with his plans.

In an attempt to address the situation and prevent a potential revolt, Shehu Usman requested Abd al-Salam to visit him. Initially, Abd al-Salam refused, but he eventually obeyed the Shehu's summons. Upon their meeting, Shehu Usman ordered Abd al-Salam to relocate to Sokoto, the capital of the caliphate, and placed him under the watchful eye of Muhammad Bello. To accommodate Abd al-Salam, Shehu Usman allowed him to build the walled-town of Kware, providing him with a place of residence and some measure of authority. Later, Abd al-Salam was permitted to construct a fortress around the town. Kware's population rapidly grew in size and had abundant farmlands.

Sultan Bello's reign
After the death of Shehu Usman dan Fodio in 1817 and the ascension of his son, Muhammad Bello, Abd al-Salam responded with only sending his condolences and did not follow the tradition of visiting Sokoto to pay his respects. Additionally, Abd al-Salam refused to pledge allegiance to Sultan Bello, asserting his sovereignty over himself. In response, Sultan Bello sent a letter to Abd al-Salam, commanding him to come to Sokoto and pledge allegiance. Abd al-Salam complied with the command and traveled to Sokoto. At Sokoto, after the Jumu'ah prayer, Abd al-Salam addressed the Sokoto community, calling upon them as witnesses. He pledged allegiance to Sultan Bello during this public gathering. In acknowledgment of this act, Sultan Bello promised to not "neglect his right" and would "allot an ample share to him" when he "found the capability".

Kware's population continued to grow, with many aggrieved Hausawa and dhimmis from the caliphate seeking refuge there. Meanwhile, Sultan Bello faced challenges in quelling various rebellions that arose after the death of Shehu Usman dan Fodio. The number of disenchanted individuals grew, and Abd al-Salam extended invitations to them, encouraging their presence in Kware. Additionally, he established relationships with neighboring enemies of Sokoto and facilitated trade arrangements with them.

As some dhimmis fled Sokoto to nearby lands and were being sent back, they passed by Kware. Abd al-Salam ordered their release by force, much like the earlier event when he was sought after by the Gobirawa during the raid on Gimbana. Word of this reached Sultan Bello in Sokoto, who promptly wrote to Abd al-Salam, demanding an explanation for the release of the captives. Abd al-Salam responded with a letter explaining that he ordered their release as he believed their capture had been unjust. Sultan Bello replied with a letter of his own, acknowledging that the spreading of injustice and corruption was apparent during that time. However, he emphasized the need for proper investigation and evidence before passing judgment, stating that the absence of injustice must be proven. Furthermore, Sultan Bello referred to Maliki scholars regarding the ruling on dealing with dhimmis fleeing to dar al-harb. According to the ijma (consensus in the Islamic community), if a dhimmi flees without facing any injustice, they are considered a harbi (inhabitant of dar al-harb or 'house of war'). On the other hand, if they flee due to injustice, they are left alone and not "enslaved according to the generally accepted view as [it is written] in the Quran." Abd al-Salam's relationship with Sultan Bello continued to deteriorate, and eventually, he sent two lengthy letters to Bello to express his grievances. In the first letter, Abd al-Salam extensively cited the Quran, the Hadiths, and teachings of various Islamic scholars, emphasizing the importance of ensuring the safety and justice for all Muslims. He quoted a saying of Muhammad that "if two Muslims meet (and fight) with their swords, [both] the killer and the killed will [fall] into Hell." When Muhammad was asked why the killed person was being punished, he responded, "He was eager for killing him (the killer)" (similar to a hadith found in Volume 1, Book 2, Number 30 of Sahih al-Bukhari). Abd al-Salam utilized these references to advocate for peace and non-violence, and he further called Bello's community unjust and corrupt. For these reasons, he did not intend to have a relationship with them. He then expressed his desire for independence through peaceful means, not seeking confrontation or armed conflict.

In the second letter, Abd al-Salam included an illustration and labeled six sides of it.

Upon receiving the two letters delivered by Abd al-Salam's qadi and muezzin, Sultan Muhammad Bello read them aloud to his community and council. He then composed a thoughtful and detailed reply, addressing each of the points raised by Abd al-Salam. In his response, Bello quoted Quranic verses, Hadiths, and opinions of Maliki scholars to refute the accusations made by Abd al-Salam, particularly those related to corruption within the caliphate. Furthermore, Sultan Bello offered cautionary advice to Abd al-Salam regarding his relationship with the dhimmis. He then ended the letter saying: "As for your statement that we are neglectful of your share in terms of land, know that your value was not hidden to us, and that we were not ignorant of your claim to more than what you mentioned. However, capability is a condition of judgements and free disposal. Therefore, we–if Allah wills–will allot an abundant share to you."Then letter reportedly reached Abd al-Salam but he never replied but was reported saying "Who assigns [lands] to us? The land is in our hands today." Despite Sultan Bello's warnings, Abd al-Salam continued to strengthen his relationships with Bello's enemies and also with the Emir of Konni, who was under the authority of Ali Jedo, administering the northern part of the caliphate. There were indications that Abd al-Salam was planning a revolt and had involved the Emir in his plans. Upon learning of this development, Sultan Bello took decisive action and commanded the Emir of Konni to come to Sokoto. However, the Emir refused to comply with Bello's orders and instead chose to go to Abd al-Salam. The Emir's brother then visited Sokoto to meet with Bello and was recognised as the new Emir of Konni after his embrace of Islam.
 * The first label, placed in the middle of the illustration, described the land as follows: "This is a description of the land of Allah to Whom belong might and majesty, which Allah, to Whom belong might and majesty, gave, through His favor – exalted be He–, to Muslims as a whole with respect to its east, west, south and north. We praise and thank Him to Whom belong might and majesty for that."
 * The second label was above the first of which he describes as: "As for the east region, it belongs to Muhammad Bello, the son of the Commander of the Faithful, 'Uthman."
 * The third label was below the first of which he describes as: "As for the west region, it belongs to 'Abd Allah bn Fudi, the full brother of the Commander of the Faithful (Uthman). This is what I made some allusion to just as the eulogist said, 'I made an allusion to the necessity with a part [of it]'."
 * The fourth label was on the right of the first of which he describes as: "As for the south region, it belongs to the two sons of the Commander of the Faithful (Uthman), 'Atiq and Bukhari."
 * The fifth label was on the left of the first of which he describes as: "As for the north region, it belongs to 'Ali bn Jaydu, the son-in-law of the Commander of the Faithful (Uthman), and Muhammadan, the son of the master (Jibril ibn Umar) of the Commander of the Faithful (Uthman)."
 * Lastly, the sixth label was between the second and the fifth of which he describes as: "And where is the region of mine, me, 'Abd al-Salam? It is what I possessed in the time of unbelief (before the Sokoto Revolution) that I still possess in the time of Islam; it is nothing but a place to reside and a place of some gardens (farmlands). Any restriction is better than this–may Allah to Whom belong might and majesty be praised–, namely, [the restriction] with respect to the land. This is the fate of time. Verily we belong to Allah and return to Him. Praise be to Allah, the Lord of the worlds."

In response to the escalating situation, Sultan Bello wrote another letter to Abd al-Salam cautioning him against harboring enemies of Sokoto and that if he wanted to revolt he should make that clear so they can "do what is necessary for it." Bello then further emphasized that he preferred harmony and concord between them. Abd al-Salam then replied: From us to you, greeting and peace.

Now then, [there is] a poem [as follows]:

"We neither seek people nor demand from them all. And we did not wish any rank.

If a person sympathethic [to us] sympathizes with us, we neither drive him away nor seek help from anyone to gain supremacy.

Consideration and speculation about creation are in Allah's wisdom. Verily wonders belong to the command of my Lord.

My praise is due to Allah first and last for the obtainment of what I preached of His Books."

Then, O our brethren, know that we prefer accrodance and concord, and do not choose rift and disagreement except with the one who conflicts with the Truth no matter who he is. There is no power and strength except with Allah, the Most High, the Most Great. Upon receiving Sultan Bello's initial letter, Abd al-Salam read it aloud to his community, using the opportunity to address them and share his thoughts. He mentioned that the letter contained a demand from "So-and-so sent me [a message to order] that I should send him all those who are here because they are his slaves, and the mastery of them is with him. What do you think? I think that I will not send them [to him]. Verily I am like them." This act further solidified the bond between Abd al-Salam and his community members and intensified their resentment towards Sultan Bello and the Sokoto government.

Tawaye
Amidst the escalating conflict between Abd al-Salam and Sultan Bello, numerous complaints reached Bello in Sokoto regarding raids on farmlands, theft, beatings, and injuries caused by Abd al-Salam's men. The situation was further aggravated when Abd al-Salam's forces, joined by the former emir of Konni's men, conducted raids and looted several Fulani villages and towns. In response to these developments, Sultan Bello received intelligence that Abd al-Salam had officially declared a tawaye (revolt or rebellion in Hausa) and sent messages to various enemies of Sokoto. Battles and skirmishes erupted in different areas around Sokoto as both parties sent raiding parties to towns and plantations.

Sultan Bello, seeking to find a resolution to the conflict, composed three letters. In the first letter to Abd al-Salam, Bello offered a peace deal, suggesting that if Abd al-Salam accepted it, he could choose any land in Zamfara, away from Sokoto, and live peacefully with minimal interference. However, Bello warned that if the peace offer was rejected he should know that "the sin of those with you and of those with us regarding what happens is upon you."

The second letter, addressed to Abd al-Salam's son, reiterated the peace offer and emphasized that the conflict was not with him or his family. Bello expressed his reluctance to harm those whom he did not wish to kill or capture. He concluded the letter with "I let you know, O Bukhari, that I have seen your father's requital to me, aand he will see–if Allah wills–the requital of Allah–exalted be He–in the place where he goes by the permission of Allah–exalted be He. This is the result of what we think. Peace."

In the final letter, directed to Abd al-Salam's community, Bello clarified that his intentions were not to harm them. He warned that if Abd al-Salam did not move away from Sokoto's vicinity, Bello's army would invade, and he advised them to emigrate with their families. However, Bello assured them that if Abd al-Salam relocated, he would not interfere with his activities. He then ended the letter with "We have already spread spies and sent [messages] to troops in all regions. This is our state. Peace."

Despite the efforts to reach a resolution, Abd al-Salam did not respond to the letters, and the situation remained tense and unresolved. The conflict continued to escalate, with both parties remaining steadfast in their positions, setting the stage for further hostilities and confrontations in the region.

Rabon Kura
Despite efforts from the Emir of Aïr and influential scholars to advise Abd al-Salam to cease hostilities, he remained steadfast in his refusal. Sultan Bello, in response, sent an army to Kware to confront Abd al-Salam's forces, but they suffered defeat. However, Bello's subsequent strategy of sending effective raiding parties in November 1817 began to take its toll on Abd al-Salam's large army. As the raids continued, Abd al-Salam became cautious and refrained from sending any counter-raids, fearing a potential trap. Seeing an opportunity for reconciliation, leading figures from Abd al-Salam's community reached out to Sultan Bello with the intention of establishing a peaceful resolution. However, Bello rejected their offer, asserting that his desire was solely for reconciliation.

On 10 December 1817, Bello's raiding parties completely stopped, followed by a large-scale ambush on 29 December. Despite reinforcements arriving to support Abd al-Salam's forces, Bello's army persevered, and eventually, reinforcements from Aïr bolstered his army. Gathering their strength, they launched an attack on Kware on 5 January 1818. Despite facing overwhelming odds, Bello's army achieved a swift and resounding victory over Abd al-Salam's forces, securing the town swiftly. He described the victory as coming "faster than unfastening a rope for hobbling the feet of a camel."

Upon receiving news of the victory, Sultan Bello wasted no time and quickly journeyed to the fort, arriving just as the sun was setting. As the remaining fighters from the defeated rebel forces learned of Bello's approach, they panicked and fled, with many going towards the region of Bakura in Zamfara. However, their escape was short-lived, as they were eventually surrounded and either killed or captured by Bello's forces. Among those who attempted to flee was Abd al-Salam, but despite his efforts to evade capture, he sustained a fatal arrow wound in the vicinity of Bakura. He later succumbed to his injuries and his corpse was devoured by hyenas. In the aftermath of these events, a number of Hausa gibes and sayings emerged, designed to mock and ridicule Abd al-Salam's failed revolt. These phrases have endured over time and remain popular today. For example:

The first sentence refers to the 'hyena's share' which Abd al-Salam said was taken by Shehu Usman's family in the division of territory after the Sokoto Revolution. In 1821, Abdullahi dan Fodio, Sarkin Gwandu, appointed Bukhari, Abd al-Salam's son, as the Sarkin Kebbi of Jega.

Sard al-kalam
Sultan Muhammad Bello, renowned for his writings and historical accounts, authored Sard al-kalam fi ma jara bayn-na wa-bayn 'Abd al-Salam, likely in the early part of 1818. In this work, Bello provides a comprehensive account of the revolt. The narrative begins with a detailed description of Abd al-Salam's background and the circumstances that led to the outbreak of the rebellion. It also includes letters from Abd al-Salam that were "highly critical of trends in Sokoto". Today, this manuscript serves as the main source on information regarding this revolt and on Abd al-Salam.