Simurrum

Simurrum (𒋛𒈬𒌨𒊑𒅎: Si-mu-ur-ri-im) was an important city state of the Mesopotamian area from around 2000 BCE to 1500 BCE, during the period of the Akkadian Empire down to Ur III. The Simurrum Kingdom disappears from records after the Old Babylonian period. It is thought that in Old Babylonian times its name was Zabban, a notable cult center of Adad. It was neighbor and sometimes ally with the Lullubi kingdom.

History
The Simurrum Kingdom seems to have been part of a belt of Hurrian city states in the northeastern portion of Mesopotamian area. They were often in conflict with the rulers of Ur III.

Several Kings (𒈗, pronounced Šàr, "Shar", in Akkadian) of Simurrum are known, such as Iddin-Sin and his son Zabazuna. Various inscriptions suggest that they were contemporary with king Ishbi-Erra (c. 1953). Another king, mentioned in The Great Revolt against Narām-Sîn, was mPu-ut-ti-ma-da-al.

Several inscriptions suggest that Simurrum was quite powerful, and shed some light on the conflicts around the Zagros area, another such example being the Anubanini rock relief of the nearby Lullubi Kingdom. Four inscriptions and a relief (now in the Israel Museum) of the Simurrum have been identified at Bitwata near Ranya in Iraq, and one from Sarpol-e Zahab in Iran.

Akkadian Period
The Simurrun were regularly in conflict with the Akkadian Empire. The names of four years of the reign of Sargon of Akkad describe his campaigns against Elam, Mari, Simurrum, and Uru'a (an Elamite city-state):

"# Year in which Sargon went to Simurrum
 * 1) Year in which Sargon destroyed Uru'a
 * 2) Year in which Uru'a was destroyed
 * 3) Year in which Sargon destroyed Elam
 * 4) Year in which Mari was destroyed"

- Known regnal year names of Sargon.

One unknown year during the reign of Akkadian Empire king Naram-Sin of Akkad was recorded as "the Year when Naram-Sin was victorious against Simurrum in Kirasheniwe and took prisoner Baba the governor of Simurrum, and Dubul the ensi (ruler) of Arame". Arame is known to be associated with Eshnunna. An Old Babylonian letter also associates Simurrum with Eshnunna. This suggests Simurrum was in the area of that city.

After the Akkadian Empire fell to the Gutians, the Lullubians and the Simurrums rebelled against the Gutian ruler Erridupizir, according to the latter's inscriptions:

"Ka-Nisba, king of Simurrum, instigated the people of Simurrum and Lullubi to revolt. Amnili, general of [the enemy Lullubi]... made the land [rebel]... Erridu-pizir, the mighty, king of Gutium and of the four quarters hastened [to confront] him... In a single day he captured the pass of Urbillum at Mount Mummum. Further, he captured Nirishuha."

- Inscription R2:226-7 of Erridupizir. At one point, Simurrum may have become a vassal of the Gutians.

Ur III Period
The Ur III empire was frequently in conflict with the city. A year name of the second ruler, Shulgi, was "Year Simurrum and Lullubum were destroyed for the ninth time". In one of these conflicts Shulgi captured the ruler of Sumurrum, Tabban-darah, and sent him to exile in Drehem. Sillus-Dagan is known to have been a governor of Simurrum under Ur III at the time of ruler Amar-Sin. It has been suggested that he was an Amorite. Four texts from Drehem with seals mentioning him have been found, including:

"'Sillus-Dagan, governor of Simurrum: Ilak-süqir, son of Alu, the chief administrator,(is) your servant.'"

During the rule of Su-Sin in the waning years of the Ur III Empire an administrator assigned to build the Mardu Wall reported "When I sent for word (to the area) between the two mountains it was brought to my attention that the Mardu were camped in the mountains. Simurrum had come to their aid. (Therefore) I proceeded to (the area) "between" the mountain range(s) of Ebih in order to do battle".

Military struggles continues up to the time of the final ruler of Ur III, Ibbi-Sin. Simurrum seems to have become independent after the collapse of Ur III.

In order to make peace with a fellow ruler Turukki leader Zaziya (Ur III period) handed over a ruler of Simurrum: "'Zaziya took his children ['grandchildren'] and led them to Zazum of Qutu as hostages (ana yaltiti ... usn). He transported tribute [there]. Zaziya turned him over (ittadinsu) to Zazum of Qutu the king of Simurrum who (once) attended Zazum but had escaped to Zaziya.'"

Rulers of Simurrum
The petty kings and governors of the kinglet or province of Simurrum.

Akkadian Period, Early Bronze IVA
 * Ka-Nisba of Simurrum, instigated Simurrum and Lullubi to revolt against the Gutian ruler Erridu-Pizir.

Ur III Period - Early Bronze IVB - Province
 * Tabban-darah under Shulgi of Ur III
 * Sillus-Dagan under Amar-Sin of Ur III

Kingdom - Middle Bronze I - Independent
 * Iddi-Sin
 * Zabazuna, son of Iddi-Sin

Location
It has been proposed that the city was on the Diyala river (which begins as the Sirwan River in Iran).

An early Assyriologist suggested Simurrum was near "Tell 'Ali" which is not far from mouth of the Lower Zab on its left bank and is on the direct line from Assur to Arrapha (Kirkuk), which it is 42 km west of, saying "The region south of Tell 'Ali has never been examined by archaeologists, but seems to contain numerous ruined towns and canals". Twenty five cuneiform tablets from the Middle Assyrian period were found at the site.

The site of Qala Shirwana, a large mound 30 m tall with an additional 10 m citadel at the top in the southern basin of the Diyala river, on its west bank, near the modern town of Kalar, has been suggested as the site of Simurrum. The upper mound has an area of 5.5 hectares. While the site is completely built over now, early satellite photographs indicate that there was a 100 hectare lower town. Second millennium BC pottery is often found during construction.

A complication is that when a city-state captured large numbers of soldiers etc. they were sometimes placed in rural settlements named after their origin, a practice that continued into Neo-Babylonian times. There were settlements near Girsu/Lagash named Lullubu(na) and Šimurrum for example.

A number of texts closely link Karaḫar and Simurrum and they are thought to be in the same area. Karaḫar is thought to be between Simurrum and Eshnunna. One of Sulgi's late year names was "Year Karaḫar was defeated for the second time". Two ensis of Karaḫar under the Ur III empire are known, Ea-rabi and Arad-Nanna.