Talk:Artifex University

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Monograph of the "ARTIFEX" University "ARTIFEX" University – ensures continuity of historical traditions in the Romanian co-operative higher education The history of the co-operative movement in our country reveals a permanent preoccupation of its leaders, since the beginning of the 20th century, to train staff for this field.

The Law –Decree dated 3 January 1919 regarding the setting-up of the Central House of the Co-operative Institutions and Villagers’ Aid (Rom. Casa Centrala a Cooperatiei si intrajutorarii Satenilor) stipulated the need of "schools to train the specialized staff for the co-operative institutions). Early 1919, when the Prime Minister was I.G.Duca, Proff. PhD Ion Raducanu, who had initiated the school in Valenii de Munte, run by Nicolae Iorga, supported by the Central Office of the Federations, opened the School for Co-operative Studies in Bucharest ,which became the "Academy for Co-operative Studies" in 1919.

The first co-operative clubs early 20th Century, and the federations- schools for co-operative education, the propaganda books, the calendar and the library of the co-operative workers, the central school and the Academy for Co-operative Studies, the printing house of the Romanian co-operative institutions, and the "Fotin Ionescu" cultural institution are the outcome of the social-idealist trend that achieved all this by struggling against bureaucracy and negativistic attitudes.

The Academy for Co-operative Studies became a centre to promote the co-operative movement and doctrine in Romania. Co-operative institutions enjoyed better organization and diversification, especially after the first Law regarding the operation of the Ministry of Labour and Social Protection in April 1920 which set up the Directorate for Town Co-operatives, encouraging the development of production co-operatives.

During the Wars, studies regarding the co-operative doctrine and practices were written by famous economists, well known in Europe: Virgil Madgearu, Ion Raducanu, Gromoslav Mladenatz, Ion Mihalache, Stefan Zeletin, Gheorghe Tasca. They were also members of historical parties: National Liberal Party, and Peasants’ National Party, and they had co-operative political programs, co-operative ideas and solutions. The co-operative literature during the Wars reflected the dispute between the parties, party factions and co-operative independent trends willing to conquer the co-operative field of activity.

The ACADEMY of CO-OPERATIVE STUDIES operated under the 1920 Law and the Law regarding the unification of co-operative institutions dated 14 March 1923.

The CO-OPERATOVE CODE, voted by the Senate and the Assembly of Deputies, and endorsed on 12 July 1928, clarified the "Responsibilities of the High Council of the Co-operative institutions" (art. 204, paragraph K), regarding the activity of the Academy for Co-operative Studies: "The current school for co-operative studies operating under the aegis of the People’s Banks, shall be considered a co-operative education school and shall be transferred under the authority of the High Council of Co-operative institutions. The duration of the theoretical and practical studies shall be 2 years. Enrolment shall be done according to the regulations. Graduates of high-schools, normal schools, commercial higher education schools with evening classes and shall be enrolled, except that the latter three categories shall pass the entrance exam to prove that they poses high-school knowledge.

The bachelor degree graduates shall enjoy priority to posts in all co-operative institutions.

The subjects to study shall be stipulated by regulations by the Teaching Staff and approved by the High Council of the Co-operative institutions".

Literature and the co-operative education during the wars assessed the co-operative phenomenon in Romania from the point of view of the historical stages that Romanian economy experienced before the 2nd World War. The co-operative scholars were seeking to formulate appropriate measures to support recovery and to guide the co-operative institutions towards economic and social progress.

The economists of the '30s, irrespective of their political views, emphasized the active role that the co-operative structures might play in the progress of the Romanian economy. During the economic boost of the ‘30s, the social -idealist trend, according to ION RADUCANU, an excellent professor of the Academy for Co-operative Studies, intended to remove the monopole of the state over the co-operative movement and to give "a soul to the co-operative body so that, by action, that is by propaganda and by schooling, it could become well-rooted".

In his capacity of an active representative of the National Peasants’ Party, he urged, in a report presented during a Congress of the party, for a co-operative reform that should start from the following basic assumptions: 1) strong basic legal and statutory structure and strong co-operative policies, allowing development without obstacles, in order to introduce an economic and social system based on labour interests; 2) strong co-operative organization whose purpose is "to give all the advantages enjoyed by the big exploiting group to the small exploiting group as well".

Among other ideas: "the co-operative studies should be introduced in the curricula at all levels and the special co-operative education should be organized properly. Regular co-operative courses should be organized in various centers: the Academy for Co-operative studies should be developed further more". The co-operative higher education became significant because this economic and social became stronger and because there was a need of well trained staff to run, in a somehow political sense, the people working in the co-operative sector.

Professor Ion Raducanu also stated that: "the distribution of the social product should be based on the co-operative principle; co-operative forces should be concentrated. Co-operative institutions should enjoy full autonomy. A loan bank of the co-operative institutions should be created. Co-operative factories should also favoured by the state against capitalist factories. The associated labour in co-operative organizations should be recognized as equal to capital; in the co-operative legislation, the spirit present in all regional co-operative organizations should be preserved; the Peasants’ Party does not intend to reduce the co-operative institutions but to differentiate the form from the contents, in order to avoid transformation of certain co-operative institutions in profiteering and exploitation structures".

The co-operative code was published in 1929 and it brought clarifications regarding the structure and the operation of co-operative organizations which gave stamina to their activities, both in urban and rural areas. Moreover, on 28 March 1929, the Law on the co-operative organizations was adopted. It included additional regulations regarding the setting up of the co-operative companies and federations as well as their responsibilities and business. A separate chapter presented the National Office of the Romanian Co-operative Institutions, a higher institution set up to guide and monitor co-operative companies that operated as an autonomous institution of public law with legal personality attached to the Ministry of Labour, to the Co-operative Institutions and Social Insurance. Under art. 80, the National Office ensured organization, guidance and monitoring of the co-operative education, of the co-operative clubs and the co-operative propaganda, through all appropriate means; and published the journal of the Romanian co-operative institutions". Art. 81 stipulates that: "The co-operative education shall include the schools for accounting studies and co-operative education, schools to train the shop assistants and the technical staff for the co-operative institutions, and the Higher School for Co-operative Studies in Bucharest, operating according to regulations of the General Council of the Co-operative Institutions approved by the Ministry of Labour, by the Co-operative Institutions and Social Insurance and sanctioned by Royal Decree.

The Curricula shall be designed by the teaching staff and approved by the General Council of the Co-operative Institutions.

By derogation from art. 2 in the Law for the operation of the Accountants dated 15 July 1921, the graduates of the co-operative schools shall be entitled to write and approve balance sheets of the co-operative companies.

The Bachelor graduates of the co-operative higher education schools shall have priority in employment in all co-operative institutions".

According to these provisions, the main preoccupation of the National Office of Co-operative Institutions was to train the higher staff needed for co-operative institutions to operate and for the management across the country, in co-operative companies, co-operative federations, co-operative unions, headquarters of co-operative institutions and the National Office. The teachers of the higher school, that is the Academy for Co-operative Studies, Virgil Madgearu, Ion Raducanu, Gromoslav Mladenatz, I.N. Anghelescu and others, in their works, studies and papers written and published in those times, made their contribution to the development and promotion of the Romanian co-operative concepts and doctrine, and to the practical organization of a significant number of co-operative companies.

The years of the great economic crisis, between 1929-1933, caused a major decline in the co-operative field. The effects of this crisis were strongly felt in all economic sectors as it strongly struck industry, agriculture, banks, loan institutions etc as well as the consumer goods industry, namely the citizen, whose purchase power was continuously declining. Under the pressure of the masses, the Government combined repressive measures with partial concessions among which: the temporary suspension of writs of execution of assets in case of failure to pay debts and the adoption of the law regarding the adjustment of agricultural debts, known as the "Conversion Law" in 1932, stipulating the reduction of debts with 50% and payment within 30 years with 4% interest per year. Subject to this law were those co-operative institutions that, in their capacity of loan lenders, were supposed to pay the loss caused as a result of the reduction of debts they were supposed to receive. The Law regarding the operation of co-operative institution in 1935 stipulated operational measures and provisions for the entire co-operative system: co-operative companies, federations, the National Institute of the Co-operative Institutions, among which provisions regarding the need to train the staff to organize and run the economic and social activity of co-operative companies and special attention was paid to the co-operative education. Art. 169 stipulated: "The last but one year of study in normal schools for primary education teachers and teachers of theological institutions shall include an accounting course including all aspects of specific management of co-operative companies of 1st and 2nd levels, and the last year of study shall include a course on the law of co-operative institutions and on commercial law related to the management of co-operative institutions. The current schools of accounting studies and co-operative education for the training of the staff of the consumer goods shops, of the technical staff needed in co-operative companies as well as the current Higher School of Co-operative Education shall operation according to regulations and curricula designed by the Board of the National Institute of Co-operative Institutions, approved by the Ministry of National Economy".

The HIGH SCHOOL FOR CO-OPERATIVE STUDIES shall continue its operation despite the modification of the Law of co-operative institutions in 1938, 1939, 1940 and 1941. A separate law for the setting up of the Academy for Co-operative Studies was adopted on 2 September 1946.

The High School for Co-operative Studies, set up in 1919 and re-organized in time according to the need to train the staff for the co-operative companies became in 1946 the ACADEMY FOR CO-OPERATIVE STUDIES.

Law no 707 and the Decree no 2700 dated 2 September 1946 stipulated the setting up of this Academy according to the law on the organization of the higher education. Art. 2 stipulated that "the ACADEMY of CO-OPERATIVE STUDIES" fell into the category stipulated under art.2 letter C in the law on the higher education, as its goals were the study of economic environment, the promotion of the study of co-operative institutions and the training based on scientific bases for the staff needed in co-operative institutions, economic and financial public companies and institutes, as well as the training of teachers for the secondary co-operative education".

"Enrolment - according to the law – shall be allowed to candidates if they possessed baccalaureate diploma issued by theoretic, commercial or agricultural high-schools, diplomas issued by normal schools, theological seminars and secondary schools of co-operative education and only after passing an entrance exam. During academic years, students shall do practical sessions in co-operative institutions, with approval of the National Institute of Co-operative Institutions or in economic and financial state-owned companies".

The Academy of Co-operative Studies trained staff in many fields; it had the following chairs: political economy and a conference of the history of economic doctrines; public and private finance (finance, currency, loan, Exchange and banks), and a conference on the currency, loan, exchange and banks; rural economy; production and trade of products of vegetal and animal origin; " co-operative institutions in Romania and other countries": co-operative economics and history of co-operative institutions, and a conference on the co-operative propaganda and education; the economics of the enterprise, with applications in co-operative and public companies; co-operative law, commercial law and economic law, and a conference on civil law and a conference on public law (constitutional and administrative);general accounting, and a conference on accounting applied in co-operative companies: mathematical calculation (commercial and financial mathematics, calculation techniques); social pedagogy, and a conference on practical pedagogy; economic sociology and social politics.

The subjects taught in the Academy of Co-operative Studies were supposed to ensure potential training of the students in compliance with the modern training methods in the economic and co-operative fields thus enabling them to get familiarized with the aspects of economic and co-operative management.

The setting up of the ACADEMY OF CO-OPERATIVE STUDIES by the Law no 707 and the Decree no 2700 dated 2 September 1946 is the recognition of the need to validate this higher education that, for almost 27 years, made its contribution to the training of the staff that organized and performed the economic and social activities in co-operative institutions. The law stipulated that the budget of the Academy of Co-operative Studies should be part of the budget of the Ministry of National Education. The Ministry of Finance added to the budget of the Ministry of National Education, for the 1946-1947 fiscal year, those funds needed for the Academy to operate, previously provided by subventions from the Ministry of Co-operative Institutions and the National Institute of the Co-operative Institutions.

The teaching staff, the administrative staff and the auxiliary staff of the High School of Co-operative Studies, appointed by decisions of the Ministry of Co-operative Institutions and already working at the moment when the law was adopted, was part of the teaching staff, administrative staff and auxiliary staff of the Academy of Co-operative Studies, if they possessed the academic titles stipulated as requirements by the Law of the Higher Education and if they met all the requirements regarding public servants. Those teachers who, although they did not posses the academic title required, had worked as teachers or lecturers for at least 10 years with the School of Co-operative Studies, and those who had worked for at least 10 years in the co-operative field in positions that were related to the specialty of the chair were confirmed in posts.

The Bachelor graduates of this Academy enjoyed all rights of the graduates of the Academies of High Commercial and Industrial Studies, under the laws in force. The students of the High School of Co-operative Studies, a school operating before the apparition of the law, could continue their studies and get their Bachelor diploma. The graduates of the former High School of co-operative studies and of the former Academy of Co-operative Studies could enroll in the 3rd academic year of the Academy of Co-operative Studies after taking an exam to ensure there were no differences in studies, an exam whose contents was established by the teachers.

The Regulations developed the provisions of Law no 707 and included new measures to cover a new structure of the co-operative higher education.

On 8 October 1946, the Directorate for Co-operative Education of the National Co-operative Institute asked, in a request written by the Co-operative Accountants Body, that the new law of the co-operative institutions of a new special law should stipulate solutions so that the diplomas of the former schools, operation until 1945 and having 3 years of studies, be equaled to the commercial of theoretic secondary schools, and that "the graduates of these schools that have worked in the co-operative field for at least 10 years, if they finished high-school, should have the right to attend the Academy of Co-operative Studies with no requirement to posses baccalaureate diplomas". The curricula of these schools ensured the graduates specialty knowledge in the field as well as general knowledge thus making them similar to the graduates of the unique high-school. In order to achieve this, requests were supposed to be submitted to the Ministry of National Education and the new Regulations of the Academy of Co-operative Studies were supposed to include these provisions.

In 1947, King Michael 1st of Romania sanctioned the Law for the re-organization of the Academy of High Commercial and Industrial Studies in Bucharest and of the Academy of Co-operative Studies into the ACADEMY OF COMMERCIAL AND CO-OPERATIVE STUDIES; the new educational institution included two faculties: Faculty of commercial sciences and Faculty of co-operative sciences. The law stipulated that the funds and the assets of the Academy of Co-operative Studies were transferred to the Faculty of Co-operative Sciences, and the building of the former Academy of High Commercial and Industrial Studies in Bucharest was supposed to be shared from that moment on. The management bodies were the RECTOR or the PRORECTOR in the case of the Academy and the DEANS or the PRODEANS in the case of the two faculties. The deliberative and the consultative bodies were: the College of the Academy, the Senate of the Academy, the Consultative Councils of the Academy and the Teaching Staff Councils of the Faculties. The responsibilities of the management were stipulated in the Law of the Higher Education; the composition and the responsibilities of the deliberative and consultative bodies were: the College of the Academy – made up of all the honourable teachers, tenured teachers, agreed teachers and lecturers, presided by the Rector and having at least one meeting per year. The College of the Academy had the following responsibilities: to approve the general issues debated and the general development plan of the Academy; to express opinions about the report of the Senate regarding the operation and the achievement of the Academy during the previous academic year; to arbitrate the conflicts between faculties or between faculties and the Senate. If the arbitrage solution was not given within ten days, the Ministry was supposed to give the solution. The College of the Academy operated under the presidency of the Rector and took valid decisions with the majority of the members. In case of parity, the vote of the president was decisive. The decisions of the College were mandatory for the faculties.

The Senate of the Academy was made up of the Rector, the Pro-Rector, the Deans of the faculties or the Pro-Deans and the delegates, appointed for two years by the Teaching Staff Council, one from each faculty, and confirmed by the Ministry through decisions. The Senate was convened at least once a year by the Rector and at any time when it was necessary. The Senate operated under the presidency of the Rector and took decisions with the majority of the members. In case of parity, the vote of the president was decisive; the vote was expressed openly and the decisions of the Senate were mandatory. The responsibilities of the Senate were the following: to take decision about the enforcement of laws and regulations regarding asset management, to coordinate curricula, to define the cooperation standards between faculties, to approve regulations, to write the annual budget draft for the Academy, to appoint censors’ committees and bookkeeping committee, to see complaints.

The Consultative Commission of the Academy consisted of a tenured teacher or an agreed teacher, appointed by the Senate, for each faculty, and a representative of the union. The Commission operated under the presidency of the Rector, or of the Pro-Rector, and its role was to help the Rector to solve financial and administrative issues. The Commissions made its own budget and made proposals, upon the request of the teachers and of the Rector, regarding the chapter in the budget of the Ministry that regarded the Academy.

Each Faculty was run by a Teaching Staff Council, made up of all the tenured teachers and delegated teachers. When administrative issues or formal issues were debated, the lecturers and the non-tenured teachers also took part in the meetings and they had consultative votes. The Teaching Staff Council was presided by the Dean, or the Pro-Dean. The president could convene the Teaching Staff Council at least once a month or whenever it was necessary. The votes of the Teaching Staff Council were accepted with absolute majority, unless otherwise stipulated by the Law of Education. The vote was openly expressed and was mandatory, no refrain was accepted; presence was mandatory and non-justified absence was sanctioned by the Senate. The Teaching Staff Council also has responsibilities regarding the curricula and the school hours, the regulations draft, checks upon the assets of the Faculty, opinions about the budget made up by the consultative committee.

Art.113 in the Law of Higher Education stipulated the existence of the “Academy of Commercial and Co-operative Sciences in Bucharest” among other Romanian higher education institutions ad the fact that this Academy awarded Bachelor diplomas and PhD diplomas in economic sciences, compliant with the provisions of the Law of Higher Education and with the internal regulations of the two faculties of the Academy.

Law no 707 stipulated that Institutes of Commercial and Co-operative Sciences were to operate within the Academy of Commercial and Co-operative Sciences in Bucharest, according to their own regulations. The scientific subjects taught by the chairs and the conferences of the two faculties of the Academy of Commercial and Co-operative Sciences in Bucharest were stipulated in the annexes of the law. By a decision of the Senate, the Teaching Staff Council of each faculty was allowed to organize the subjects of study and the exams per years of study and specialty. Their decision was approved by the Senate and the Ministry of National Education which issued a decision in this respect.

Special provisions of the law were dedicated to the Teaching Staff of the Academy of Commercial and Co-operative Sciences.

The Annex of the Law no 299, voted by the Assembly of the Deputies on 7 August 1947, included the curricula of the Faculty of Co-operative Sciences and the number of the teaching staff that the Ministry of National Education was to fill with teachers and lecturers; this provides a general view upon the theoretic dimension of the new faculty and about the importance given to the Co-operative education.

Many of the subjects coincided with those taught in the Faculty of Commercial Sciences; the law stipulates the following: Political Economics (two chairs and a conference); Planned economy (one chair and a conference); Public finance (one chair and one conference); General and applied accounting (two chairs and two conferences); Economic and social statistics (one chair and one conference); Economic and technical calculation of insurances (one chair and one conference); Economics of enterprises with applications in public and cooperative enterprises (one chair); Agricultural production and its putting to good value (one chair and one conference); Agricultural economics (one conference); Study of goods (one conference); Economic geography (one conference); History of Romanian economics and co-operative institutions (one chair); Study of the development of society (one chair); Legislation of the employees and social security (one chair); Pedagogy (one chair and one conference); Commercial and co-operative law (one chair and one conference); Civil law (one chair); Public law (one conference); International law(one conference); Commercial correspondence in Romanian (one conference); French language (two conferences); German language (one conference); Italian language (one conference); English language (one chair and one conference); Russian language (one chair and one conference).

The Law had provisions regarding the transfer of the teaching staff of the Academy of High Commercial and Industrial Studies and of the Academy of Co-operative Studies to the newly created institution. The committee set up for this purpose, made up of the rectors of the academies and one teacher form each faculty, appointed by the Ministry of National Education, and one representative on the union, designated by the Committee of the Union, had to consider the situation of each member, separately: the level acquired in the educational system, the specialty, the subject to teach. The teaching staff without posts kept their rights regarding pensions. The tenured teachers whose chairs had been removed under the Law no 299 could be hired for conferences and kept their rights regarding pensions, titles and salaries and could take part in the teaching staff councils.

The situations of the students and graduates of the re-organized academies would be defined by the Teaching Staff Council of each faculty, in compliance with the norms established by a committee, approved by the Ministry of National Education.

The Reform of the Educational system in 1948 ended up the existence of the Academy of Commercial and Co-operative Sciences. Under the Decree no 175/1948, the Academy operated under the name of the “Institute of Economic Sciences and Planning” in Bucharest. The structure was weak. For the 1948-1949 academic year, three faculties operated: Faculty of General Economics, with 4 academic years; Faculty of Planning and Economic Management, with 3 academic years, and Faculty of Finance, with 3 academic years. For the 1949-1950 academic years, the Faculty of Co-operative Studies was added, with 3 academic years. For the 1951-1952 academic year, the Faculty of Co-operative Studies turned into the Faculty of Trade and Co-operative Studies with 4 academic years, with the following specialties: trade, co-operative studies, and staring with 1952, merceology.

The 1958-1959 academic year had three faculties: Faculty of General Economics, with the following specialties: Political economics and Planning, and Statistics, Faculty of Finance with Finance-Loan and Accounting, Faculty of Trade, Economics of Co-operative Institutions, Merceology and Economics of Foreign Trade, all having 5 academic years for a Bachelor degree.

The re-organization measures in the higher education in the ‘60s allowed a better adjustment of economists to the requirements imposed by the progress of science and technology, inclusion in the curricula of mathematical sciences with applicability in economics and of other modern subjects, new specialties in the curricula.

Beginning with the 1967-1968 academic year, this major institution of the Romanian higher education was called the Academy of Economic Studies in Bucharest.

There were six faculties: Faculty of the Economics of Production, with two specialties: the Economics of Industry and the Economics of Agriculture; Faculty of Economic Calculations and Economic Cybernetics, with three specialties: Statistics, Economic Cybernetics, Mechanization and Automated Economic Calculation, Faculty of Trade, with three specialties: Domestic Trade, Foreign Trade, and Merceology, Faculty of Finance; Faculty of Accounting; Faculty of General Economics. The Faculty of Trade and Co-operative Studies no longer existed, with the "Economics of Co-operative Institutions". After 48 years, the Co-operative education was no longer separate. However, the curricula of certain faculties included history, doctrine and economics of Co-operative institutions.

It was unrealistic that there was no longer a need for an organized and comprehensive system to train the staff for Co-operative organizations. The national Co-operative system was working and had a major contribution to the economy: much of the income of the Co-operative organizations was transferred to the state budget.

The interruption of the higher education for the management of Co-operative organizations had consequences during the following years; many positions that should have been filled by staff with higher education were filled with staff with secondary education which had consequences upon the management of the Co-operative organizations, especially during the transition from the centralized towards the de-centralized economy, when the key to success was the quick, competent decision, a decision knowledgeable of the processes and phenomena taking place on the market.

After 1989, the Co-operative institutions adopted measures meant to adjust this system to the dynamic economy. The decisions taken in 1992 by the UCECOM Council to organize the economic and managerial training of the staff needed, that is the decision to set up ARTIFEX University, the Academy of High Co-operative Studies, a continuator of the academy set up in 1919 operating until 1967, whose purpose was to train staff for the Co-operative institutions.

Rector, Prof.univ.dr.Dan Cruceru

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