Talk:Cuisine of Hawaii/Temp

The following content is paraphrased, not directly quoted, so it can be copied into the article exactly as it appears or altered depending on your preference. &mdash;Viriditas | Talk 05:03, 20 November 2007 (UTC)

This is not exactly ancient, but more of a general perspective of oceanic cuisine.
 * Traditional Oceanic cuisine
 * Oceanic cuisine is based on starch foods (such as breadfruit, yams, sweet potatoes, taros, etc.) with a side dish of leafy greens or vegetables. Seafood and seaweed are often eaten, and sometimes chicken or another kind of meat. Deserts are eaten only during feasts, and fruit is considered a snack food. Children and adults may nibble on sugar cane for sweets.  Coconut milk is used for cooking everything, and coconut meat is used in relishes, entrees, and in deserts.  The water of the coconut is a common drink, consumed directly from the nut.  Cooking is usually done by women.  Food is often boiled in a container filled with coconut milk or sea water.  Items may also be steamed in the leaves of the taro, banana, breadfruit, or ti plants.  Bivalves may be cooked in their shells, whle smaller fish and other animals cooked in leaves. Larger pieces of meat, such as fowl and pigs, may be cooked in earth ovens, or spitted over a fire, often for ceremonial feasts. Fish can be eaten raw or cooked, and raw fish may often be "cooked" with acidic marination. (Brennan, 2000, 3-5)

Hawaiian food
Upon arriving in the islands, the first Hawaiians found plenty of fish, shellfish, and limu. Flightless birds were easy to catch and nests were full of eggs for the taking. Fresh drinking water was available, but aside from a few edible ferns and fruit that grew at higher elevations, the island lacked edible carbohydrates. Botanists believe that the early Hawaiians introduced anywhere between 27 and possibly more than 30 plants to the islands, mainly for food.(Laudan 1996, p.216) These include:


 * Kalo (taro) (Colocasia esculenta)
 * Ulu (breadfruit) (Artocarpus altilis)
 * Uala (sweet potato) (Ipomoea batatas)
 * Uhi (yams) (Dioscorea sp.)
 * Maia (banana) (Musa acuminata hybrids)
 * Niu (coconut) (Cocos nucifera)
 * Ko (sugarcane) (Saccharum officinarum)
 * Ki (ti) (Cordyline fruticosa)
 * Ohia (mountain apple) (Syzgium malaccense)
 * Kukui candlenut (Aleurites moluccana)
 * Awa awa (kava) (Piper methysticum)
 * Pia (Polynesian arrowroot) (Tacca leontopetaloides)


 * Chickens, pigs, dogs, and rats (not on purpose)

Foods eaten often:(Adams, 2006, p.90-92)


 * Kalo (taro, the corms and leaves)
 * 'uala (sweet potato)


 * The presence of the sweet potato in the Hawaiian diet is very interesting and may be relevant to further discussion concerning pre-Columbian_trans-oceanic_contact and current research in this area. &mdash;Viriditas | Talk 12:45, 21 November 2007 (UTC)


 * "One mystery surrounding the sweet potato that continues to perplex botanists and archaeologists to this day is how the plants spread to Polynesia—including Easter Island, Hawaii, and New Zealand, where they are believed to have been cultivated starting in about A.D. 1200, long before Spanish explorers traveled there. Modern explorer Thor Heyerdahl believed that indigenous people living in what is now Peru, who were extensive traders, traveled to the South Pacific on balsa rafts, and that they introduced the sweet potato to the South Pacific. To prove that it could be done, in 1947 he constructed a balsa raft called the Kon-Tiki and successfully sailed it from the coast of Peru to Raroia atoll in the Tuamotu Archipelago in the South Pacific. Although he demonstrated that it was possible for pre-Inca sailors to sail across the Pacific Ocean, most scholars still do not accept his theories. Instead, many believe that either Polynesians traveled to Peru, where they obtained sweet potatoes, planting them upon return to their islands; or that an unmanned South American trade vessel ship wrecked in Polynesia."


 * 'ulu (breadfruit)
 * fruits
 * niu (coconut)
 * mai'a (banana)
 * seafood

Condiments:(Adams, 2006, p.90-92)
 * pa'akai (salt)
 * ground kukui nut
 * limu (seaweed)
 * ko (sugarcane) - as a sweet and medicine

Foods eaten not as often:(Adams, 2006, p.90-92)
 * pua'a (pork
 * moa (chicken)
 * 'ilio (dog)


 * More info
 * Wild pig (Sus scrofa papuensis) (Brennan, 2000, p.283)
 * Most (Pacific) Islands had no meat animals (not including bats and lizards) so Polynesians sailed the Pacific with pigs as cargo, and the role of pigs in Polynesian society became valuable over time, as possessions and symbols of wealth, forming the basis of an inter-tribal currency of exchange. Polynesians in ancient times raised pigs for religious sacrifice, and the meat was offered at altars, some of which was consumed by priests, the rest eaten in a celebration of orgiastic feasting.(Brennan, 2000, p.135-138)
 * Hawaiian Goose ( probably Branta sandvicensis but source doesn't specify) (Brennan, 2000, p.139)
 * Hawaiian Duck (need exact species) (Brennan, 2000, p.139)
 * Some species of land and sea birds were consumed into extinction. (Brennan, 2000, p.139)

The agricultural system of the pre-contact Hawaiians was maintained through the use of shared land divisions, or ahupuaa, which provided for food and basic needs, and formed the basis for bartering. The ahupua'a was dissolved with the creation of private property in 1848. (Corum 2000, p.1-2) The early Hawaiian diet was diverse, and may have included as many as 130 different types of seafood and 230 types of sweet potatoes. Beef, chiles salt salmon, bean threads, rice, refined sugar, and wheat were unknown to Hawaiians until contact was established with the West in the 18th century..(Henderson, 1994, p.xvii)

Strict dietary rules pervaded Hawaiian society. Men and women were forbidden to eat together, and except for special occasions, women were not allowed to eat bananas, coconuts, pork, and shark meat. If a woman was caught breaking the eating Kapu, she would be killed by the Mu, official executioners.(Tabrah 1984, p.18; Philpotts 2003, p.X) In 1819, Kamehameha II, the King of Hawaii, ate with women for the first time, leading to the 'Ai Noa, the breakdown of the kapu system. Queen Ka'ahumanu was responsible for the incident, convincing queen consort Keopuolani to eat at the King's table. With the kapu system broken, the rights of Hawaiian women expanded.(cite needed)

The word lu'au wasn't even used until 1856, replacing the previous Hawaiian words for 'aha'aina and pa'ina.(Adams, 2006, p.90-92)

Cooking methods
Cooking methods of the early Hawaiians relied on broiling, boiling, and underground earth ovens. Fish and meat could also be preserved with salt; fish could be cut it into strips, salted, and then hung ot in the sun to dry. Modern Hawaiians use drying boxes.(Corum 2000, pp.2-3)

Broiling over hot coals (ko'ala) and hot ashes (pulehu) was a common cooking method for the early Hawaiians. Fruits and sweet potatoes could be broiled in their skin while meats and fish could be prepared for broiling on coals or ashes by wrapping it in ti leaves. This method was called lawalu. Fish cooked in this way would be placed on a ti leaf, a second leaf placed on top, and a third leaf wrapped over it with the ends tied. The lawalu method maintained the moisture and flavor of the fish. Meats and vegetables would be wrapped and tied in the same way. Boiling (hakui, puholo) with heated stones was a popular method for cooking fish and leafy greens. Since Hawaiians did not have fireproof utensils, they could not boil foods over a fire. Instead, stones would be heated to a high temperature and placed into a calabash ('umeke) with food and water.(Corum 2000, pp.2-3)
 * Broiling and boiling

Roasting and steaming underground (kalua, imu) was the most important cooking method for Hawaiians. A hole would be dug, wood and kindling added. Stones dropped on top of the wood and then the fire would be started. When the porous stones became red hot, they would be covered with banana trunks, and then another layer of grass or ti leaves. Food which was wrapped in ti or banana leaves would be covered in a cloth like kapa or coconut cloth and added to the grass layer. The modern method is very similar to that of the early Hawaiians.(Corum 2000, pp.2-3)
 * Earth oven

Kamaaina food
Whalers brought pilot bread and salt meat to the islands, while trading ships from Hudson's Bay Co. brought barrels of salt salmon from the Pacific Northwest. Salmon was an essential food for the Northwest Indian fur trade. (Adams, p. 38)

We can use this tidbit to introduce the modern "Pacific Rim cuisine" and "Hawaii Regional Cuisine" subsection prior to the part about the well-known Hawaiian chefs:


 * The first restaurant in Honolulu is thought to have been opened in 1849 by a Portuguese man by the name of Peter Fernandez. Situated behind the Bishop & Co. bank, the establishment was known as the "eating house" and was followed by other restaurants, such as Mrs. Leon Dejean's "Parisian Restaurant" at the corner of Hotel and Fort Streets. (Rea & Ting, p. 30)

I'm trying to establish that fine dining has a long history in Hawaii:


 * In 1872, the Royal Hawaiian Hotel opened on Hotel Street, and as one of the most refined hotels in the Pacific, it catered to a wealthy and esteemed clientele. The Royal Hawaiian dining room served items on par with the best restaurants in Europe, with an 1874 menu offering dishes such as mullet, spring lamb, chicken with tomatoes, and Cabinet Pudding. (Rea & Ting, p. 48)

Agircultural diversity by the middle of the 19th and early 20th centuries was more diverse than today:


 * By the middle of the 19th century, agricultural production was diverse throughout the islands, with Hawaii producing and exporting wheat, rice, and potatoes. (Adams, 2006, p.38) In 1856, wheat was ground into flour by the Hawaiian Flour Co. on East Maui, while figs and melons were grown in Lahaina.  On the Big Island, salt meat and irish potatoes were raised in Kawaihae, and arrowroot in Hilo. (Adams, 2006, p.9)  Island markets carried a variable supply of locally grown fruits and vegetables, and when those weren't available, islanders maintained personal gardens and still foraged in the wild.   (Adams, 2006, p.38)  As the population steadily grew and with it the tourism industry, food demand exceeded local production; the shipping industry began to import most of Hawaii's food, and this trend continues today. (Adams, 2006, p.38)

Ethnic food
Ethnic foods in Hawaii arose in the middle of the nineteenth century, out of the third migration and diaspora of people to the Hawaiian Islands (I will eventually explain and add the first two, namely the Polynesian and mercahnts/missionaries). Disease decimated the native Hawaiian population, and with the planting of sugar cane and pineapple, there was a labor shortage. Chinese, Japanese Portuguese, Korean, Filipino, and Southeast Asian immigrants came to Hawaii to work on plantations,(Laudan 1996, p.3)(Henderson, 1994, p.xviii) and brought their ethnic cuisines to the islands. Traditional recipes were adapted to whatever ingredients could be found in Hawaii; each ethnic group contributed to the development of folk cuisine in the gardens and camps of the plantations. The Chinese planted lychee trees and star fruit; Japanese planted turnips for pickles and Koreans planted cabbage and chilies for kim chee, while the Portuguese built stone ovens for baking bread, vegetable and bean soups, and vinha d'alhos roasts. By the 1930s, folk cuisine was firmly established in the Hawaiian Islands.(Philpotts 2004, p. XI-XII)

Chinese
Chinese immigration to Hawaii began in 1852, with indentured laborers from the Guangzhou area of southern China.(Corum 2000, p.25)(But Dorrance & Morgan 200, p.127 state: "The first imported laborers were some 500 Chinese from Amoy Province in 1852.") The Chinese brought Cantonese cuisine and rice to the Islands, cooking the first stir fry, sweet and sour, and dim sum dishes in Hawaii.(Henderson1994, p.xviii)

Japanese
The first Japanese immigrants arrived in Hawaii in 1868 as contract laborers for the sugar cane and pineapple plantations (Morimoto 1997, p. 17) bringing soybean products like soy sauce, miso, and tofu, as well as dried seaweed and pickled vegetables. The homes of Japanese immigrants lacked ovens, so cooking methods relied on frying, steaming, broiling, and simmering, leading to the popularization of tempura, noodle soups, and sashimi.(Henderson 1994, p.xviii)

Portuguese
The Portuguese began arriving in 1878, bringing spicy sausages, Portuguese bean soup, sweet breads, egg-based pastries, and malasadas.

See also: History of the Malasada and its intersection with modern Hawaiian Regional Cuisine (Clarke, Joan. July 26, 2000. "Haute doughnut. Evolution of the malassada". Island Life Food. p. 1D The Honolulu Advertiser)

Korean
The Koreans came to the Islands in 1903, offering kimchi and barbecued marinated beef.(Henderson 1994, p.xviii)

Filipino
Filipinos from Manila reached the shores of Hawaii in 1909, bringing peas and beans, the abodo style of vinegar and garlic dishes, choosing to boil, stew, broil, and fry food instead of baking, and eating sweet potatoes as a staple instead of rice.(Henderson 1994, p.xviii)

Puerto Rican
Puerto Rican immigration to Hawaii began in 1900, contributing spicy, Spanish-seasoned thick soups, casseroles, and meat turnovers.(Henderson 1994, p.xviii) Samoans arrived in 1919, and although their style was similar to Hawaiians, they built their ovens above ground instead of below like the imu, and made poi from fruit instead of taro.(Henderson 1994, p.xviii)

Southeast Asian
After the Vietnam War ended in 1975, Vietnamese immigrants arrived,(Corum 2000, p.194) and Thai and Vietnamese cuisine was added to the menu, featuring Southeast Asian lemongrass, fish sauce and galanga.(Henderson 2000, p.18)

Local food
Local food was initially ignored by the media in Hawaii. Instead, published recipes in early 20th century Hawaiian newspapers promoted non-Hawaiian dishes, such as egg sauces, aspic salads, boiled dressings, dried beef and onion juice, and rice cooked in milk. It wasn't until 1920 that Hawaii-based media began acknowledging the existence of local foods with the publication of a recipe for guava gelée in a local newspaper. The guava paste confection made use of the leftover pulp from the local fruit after the juice is removed for guava jelly.(Adams 2006, p. 10)(Adams 2006, p. 20)

Spam
Hawaiians are the second largest consumers of Spam in the world, right behind Guam. In 2005, Hawaiians consumed more than five million cans of Spam.(Adams, 2006, p.58-59) As documented by reporter Rick Carroll, local dishes use Spam in a variety of ways: in saimin, fried rice, stir-fry with cabbage, mashed with tofu, in cold somen, in baked macaroni and cheese, in chutney for pupu, as sandwich meat with mayo, baked with guava jelly, and in classic form, as a key ingredient in breakfast, fried with eggs and rice. Spam musubi, a slice of sweet and salty marinaded Spam tied to a cake of rice with a strip of nori, became popular in the 1980's. Author Ann Kondo Corum attributes the creation of Spam musubi to Mitsuko Kaneshiro, founder of Michan's Musubi. (Adams, 2006, p.58-59)

Pastries and breads
Portuguese immigrants came to Hawaii from the Azores in the late 19th century, bringing the recipe for malasadas, an eggy doughut containing milk or cream. In Europe, malasadas were eaten as treats on Shrove Tuesday, the day before fasting began for Lent. (Laudan, 1996, pp. 94-95) With Japanese immigration, the andagi, an Okinawan doughnut, also become popular in Hawaii. Businessman and Japanese-American baker Robert Taira (whose parents are Okinawan) came up with a winning recipe for Portuguese Hawaiian sweet bread in the 1950s. Starting with only $500, Taira began to commercially produce the bread in Hawaii, and it became successful in Honolulu bakeries and coffee shops, with plant production expanding to California and South Carolina. By the 1980s, Taira's company was grossing $20 million annually. (Laudan, 1996, p. 134)

Hawaiian regional cuisine
This is not ready for prime-time, so just leave this here for now, please.

In 1905, George R. Carter, Territorial Governor of Hawai'i, promoted increasing local agricultural production: "There was a time when Hawaii supplied California with flour; also potatoes and other vegetables. Now California produces her own and sends part of the surplus here." Newspaper editorials of the time also questioned why locally-grown guavas were rotting on the ground while agribusiness were planting non-native pineapples in Hawaii. These concerns weren't addressed until almost a century later, when the regional cuisine movement began encouraging the food industry to "grow local, buy local, and eat local."(Adams 2006, p. 10) Regional cuisine focused on basic island foods eaten by Ancient Hawaiians - local fish, tropical fruit, local vegetables - and the mixture of ethnic foods. (Henderson, 1994, pp.xvi-xvii)

Six of Hawaii's islands have major farms, but the majority of agricultural production is found on the island of Hawaii (Big Island). Island restaurants featuring Hawaii regional cuisine are supplied with foods mainly from the Big Island. This includes fish caught on the coastline of Hawaii, such as ahi (tuna), shutome (swordfish), opah (moonfish), opakapaka (snapper), and Kona cold lobsters. Ranches supply cattle and sheep, as well as Puna goat cheese. Vegetables, nuts, and fruits grown on the Big Island include hydroponic lettuce, cocoa beans, macadamia nuts, and of course, Kona coffee. Taro, mango, durian, rambutan, star fruit, cheremoya, figs, lychee, and dragon fruit are also grown.

Modern Hawaiian luau
(Brennan, 2000, p. 249)


 * Oceanian feast - Polynesian Hawaiian style
 * Kalua pork
 * Laulaus (leaf-wrapped fish and pork bundles)
 * Laulaus are typically leaf-wrapped packets of fish and meat. They may be substituted for kalua pig at a Hawaiian feast or poi dinner.  They are similar to Samoan or Fijian palusami, but do not contain coconut milk.  In Hawaiian cuisine, laulaus are double wrapped, first in taro, then ti leaves.  Traditionally, laulaus are filled with a mixture of different kinds of meat such as Boston pork butt, beef chuck, salted salmon, and salted butter-fish.(Brennan, 2000, p. 116)
 * Kamano lomi (Lomi salmon)
 * Haupia (Coconut lu'au desert)


 * Contemporary use of earth oven

I just wanted to point out that the description of the ancient Hawaiian use of the imu holds for contemporary use as well. I think it would help to state that the practice hasn't changed. There's a chapter called "The Traditional Lu'au Feast" in Philpotts Great Chefs of Hawaii (2004) that illustrates the modern practice in extensive detail, with Sam Choy directing the operation. It will make a great addition to this section. We should think about splitting it out of the Ancient times section into a subsection of its own as the practice has barely changed over the centuries. Also, the section makes it seem like Hawaiians only cooked with an imu, which I think is incorrect considering the intensive labor required. &mdash;Viriditas | Talk 23:41, 20 November 2007 (UTC)

Sea vegetables
(Brennan, 2000, pp.267-270)
 * Green algae (Enteromorpha prolifera) spp. (Limu 'ele 'ele)
 * Red algae (Asparagopsis taxiformis) (Limu kohu)
 * Gracilaria coronopifolia (Limu manauea) and G. parvispora (Ogo Nori)
 * Laurencia nidifica (Limu mane'one'o)
 * "Chili pepper seaweed" - traditionally used as relish in poke
 * Porphyra vietnamensis (Limu pahe'e)
 * Sea Grape (Caulerpa racemosa)
 * Sea lettuce (Ulva expansa, and U. fasciata) (Limu palahalaha)

Fish and seafood

 * Wrasse or Sandfish (Lepidaplois bilunulatus or L. modestus) ('a'awa) (Laudan, 1996, p. 265-276)
 * Limpet (Cellana exarata, C. sandwichenis) ('opihi) (Brennan, 2000, pp. 271-273)
 * Were once given a lomi in salt and eaten raw; modern prep. marinates in shoyu (Brennan, 2000, pp. 271-273)
 * Mantis Shrimp (Harpio squilla) ('alo 'alo) (Brennan, 2000, pp. 271-273)
 * Parrotfish (Scarus sp.) (uhu) (Laudan, 1996, p. 265-276)
 * Saltwater eel (Anguilliformes) (Brennan, 2000, pp. 271-273)
 * Only species of eel eaten by ancient Hawaiians. Salted and dried before broiling or steaming in an imu, wrapped in ti leaves. Hawaiian ali'i "considered eels more choice than wives". (Brennan, 2000, pp. 271-273)
 * Goatfish (Mullidae sp.) (weke) (Laudan, 1996, p. 265-276)
 * Yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) ('ahi) (Laudan, 1996, p. 265-276)
 * Used by ancient Hawaiians on long ocean voyages since it is well preserved when salted and dried

Vegetables, fruits, and nuts
(Brennan, 2000, pp.252-267)
 * Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis)
 * Candle Nut (Aleurites moluccana) or Kukui
 * Roasted kernels traditionally used as candles; main ingredietn in the ancient Hawaiian condiment, 'inamona
 * Coconut (Cocos nucifera)
 * Polynesian Arrowroot (Tacca leontopetaloides) or pia plant
 * Used as a primary thickener. Cooked pia is mixed with papaya, banana, or pumpkin in baked deserts like Haupia, a Hawaiian coconut cream pudding.
 * Taro (Colocasia esculenta)
 * Harvested for at least 30,000 years by natives in New Guinea. Hawaiians mash the puree of Taro into poi. Leaves are called lu'au.
 * Ki or Ti (Cordyline fruticosa)
 * The root of the Ti plant can be made into okolehao, a liquor.
 * Winged Beans (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus)

Notable restaurants

 * Sekiya's Restaurant & Delicatessen