Talk:Liaison/Translation from French

Untitled
The below is the text of Liaison (linguistique). I am starting a translation of it; others are of course welcome to help. The ultimate goal is to be able either to substitute this text for the current text of Liaison, or to merge the two into one text at Liaison, since (for understandable reasons) this article gives way more information than Liaison. Ruakh 19:13, 17 Mar 2005 (UTC)


 * Ooh, look who I found! I'll see if I can get my two cents in the translation (my French is very very basic, but written French I understand, mostly). I just mentioned liaison in Rioplatense Spanish (s-aspiration), since it looks like the same is happening as it does in French, though I'm no sure if simple resyllabification is not the correct answer. I think the details about French liaison should be left to a separate article. Also, the profusion of technical Greek terms in the intro paragraphs may be a bit scary for the reader... --Pablo D. Flores 13:30, 12 May 2005 (UTC)

In French, liaison is a type of external sandhi (a modification of pronunciation caused by neighboring words). It is a method of euphonic resolution of hiatus (like elision) that consists of inserting a consonant between a word that ends in a vowel and a word that starts with one. In other words, it refers to the fact that a final consonant, normally silent in a word taken on its own, is pronounced when the following word starts with a vowel. It is a form of paragoge, hence of metaplasm.

Unlike an ephelcystic consonant (like the /t/ in donne-t-il), the consonant in liaison is tied to the history of the language: it's a final consonant that is normally suppressed but that continues to be pronounced before an initial vowel.

Realization of liaison
The (usually) silent final consonants of certain words can be pronounced, in certain syntactic contexts, when the following word begins with a vowel. Since the sound thus obtained is an ancient one, spellings that are based on the etymology of the word may not reflect the real pronunciation.

For example, final consonants are pronounced as follows in the case of liaison (the transcription uses IPA; in IPA, liaison is indicated by placing the symbol [‿] between the consonant and the vowel):
 * -d = : grand homme ("tall man") =.
 * -g = : sang impur ("unclean blood") =.
 * -s = : les enfants ("the children") =.
 * -x = : six adultes ("six adults") =.

With most words whose spellings end in -n and whose pronunciations end in nasal vowels (,, , or ), the vowel will be denasalized during liaison:
 * with denasalization: bon, but bon ami ; certain , but certain ami.
 * without denasalization: mon, mon ami ; aucun , aucun ami.

Types of liaisons
We can broadly define three types of liaison in French. Liaison appears between words that are strongly connected grammatically within one phrasal tonic accent. We distinguish between the following:
 * obligatory liaison (la liaison obligatoire)
 * optional liaison (la liaison facultative - literally "helpful liaison")
 * forbidden liaison (la liaison interdite, la liaison impossible, or disjunction)

Obligatory liaison
The omission of an obligatory liaison is felt by French-speakers as an error in pronunciation, regardless of register - from formal speech to vulgare speech. Liaison is obligatory:
 * between a determiner or adjective and its noun: les enfants [le zɑ̃ fɑ̃], petits enfants [pə ti zɑ̃ fɑ̃], tout homme [tu t&#596;m].
 * between a personal pronoun, on, en, or y and its verb, or vice versa: nous avons [nu za v&#596;̃], ont-ils [&#596;̃ til], donnes-en [d&#596;n zɑ̃] (with an ephelcystic s).
 * in lexicalized expressions and compound words: petit à petit [pə ti tap ti], non-agression [n&#596; na grɛ sj&#596;̃].

Optional liaison
If some liaisons are truly obligatory, others are only "obligatory" in formal speech. (See register (linguistics).) The following are some of these optional liaisons, often omitted from everyday speech:
 * after est ("is") as an impersonal verb: c'est incroyable ("that's unbelievable"), il est impossible de &hellip; ("it is impossible to &hellip;")
 * after certain one-syllable adverbs and prepositions that are strongly connected to the words they precede: pas encore ("not yet"), plus ici ("no longer here"), sous un abri ("under protection"), sans un sou ("without a dime")
 * between an adjective and its noun: enfants agréables ("pleasant children")
 * with a word ending in -r followed by a silent consonant (other than the -s of a plural consonant) that is capable of liaison, the liaison can be omitted, the hiatus being resolved instead by the enchainment of the -r: so, pars avec lui ("leave with him") will be pronounced as [paʁavɛk lɥi] more readily than as [paʁz‿avɛk lɥi]

Other liaisons that are not explicitly forbidden (see below) are possible. Depending on their frequency, these are more or less pedantic: ils ont&#8255;attendu ("they have waited") seems much less pedantic than tu as&#8255;attendu ("you have waited"). (Note that the everyday spoken forms would more likely be [iz&#596;̃atɑ̃dy] and [taatɑ̃dy], or simply [taːtɑ̃dy].)

Forbidden liaison
Finally, certain liaisons are impossible:
 * after et ("and") - which allows it to be distinguished from est ("is") in speech.
 * after the silent final consonant of a singular common noun: coup X intéressant ("interesting deed"), rat X énorme ("enormous rat") - which allows a distinction between a noun and an adjective: un précieux&#8255;insolent is a precious insolent person, while un précieux X insolent is an insolent member of the préciosité literary movement.
 * after verbs with the second-person singular ending -es : tu manges X en paix ("you eat in peace"); the ending is elided instead.
 * before a word beginning with an "aspirated h": les X haricots (green beans), ils X halètent ("they are gasping"). (Note that even the so-called "aspirated h" is not actually pronounced in modern French.) In the regulated language, hiatus is required here. In everyday registers, this phenomenon is frequently omitted, especially with little-known words.
 * before certain words that start with vowels, such as onze ("eleven"), un when used to mean "one," and oui ("yes").

Errors of liaison
As can be seen, liaison, outlined above, is only obligatory in rare cases. The omission of such a liaison would be considered an error, not simply as taking liberties with the rule. In cases of optional liaison, the omission is common, and liaison appears only in careful speech.

On the other end, placing a liaison where one is impossible can also pass as an error, except in the cases of disjunction with aspirated h&#39;s: the liaison will indicate an uncultivated speaker. Even in familiar language, liaison before an aspirated h can seem unsophisticated.

Finally, it happens, due to hypercorrection or due to euphony, that a liaison is pronounced where it doesn't existe (where it is possible by spelling, but forbidden, as with et&#8255;ainsi, or where it is impossible even by spelling, as with moi-z-avec). This phenomenon is called pataquès. In rare cases, these liaisons may be conserved by the language and become obligatory, such as in donnes-en and mange-t-il; see ephelcystic phoneme. Otherwise, they are felt in the same way as omissions of disjunction, suggesting a poorly cultivated or clumsy speaker. Such an error is sometimes called cuir ("leather") when the inserted consonant is, velours ("velvet") when it is , although dictionaries do not all agree on these terms:
 * cuir: tu peux-t-avoir;
 * velours: moi-z-aussi.

Special cases: poetic verse and applied diction
The reading of poetry (whether said or sung) requires that all liaisons be used (except those described above as impossible), even those of -es in the second-person singular as well as the reading of all necessary "null e&#39;s" (see the French article on poetry, for more details). The reading of the liaisons affects the number of syllables pronounced, hence is of chief importance for the correct pronunciation of a verse. French-speakers tend as much as possible to avoid a hiatus or a succession of two consonants between two words, in a more or less artificially way.

An applied reading (but without the obligatory reading of "null e&#39;s") is necessary in an oratory setting. The voice is in effect one of the tools of persuasion: it reflects through a pronunciation that feels exact ─ according to prevailing norms ─ intellectual qualities, culture, self-control, and finesse of wit. Pushed too far, the forced respect of liaisons can render a speech ridiculous. It has been pointed out that French politicians and speakers in the 2000s (Jacques Chirac, for example, has a habit of this) apply a strange diction, consisting of automatically pronouncing certain liaisons independently of the following word and introducting a pause (disjunction or euh) after the consonant of liaison. For example, ils ont entendu ("they heard") is normally pronounced or, in more careful speech,. A speaker using this incorrect pronounciation would say (where [|] represents a pause; ils ont'... entendu). Worse, one might even hear ils ont décidé ("they decided") pronounced (ils ont'... décidé) or  (ils onteuh... décidé). In the first case, a pause between two words related so strongly can seem strange on the part of a speaker; in the second, the liaison is worse than a "pataquès" since it introduces a phoneme of liaison that is useless in the absence of hiatus.

Origins of liaison
In order to understand the origins of liaison, as well as the divergencies between the written form and the pronunciation, it is necessary to study the language from a diachronic point of view, and never forget that while the current orthography is recent and artificial, liaison produces the re-appearance of ancient consonants that had been masked by orthographical modifications.

Medieval consonants
For example, the word grand is written grant in medieval manuscripts (grant served for both masculine and feminine gender). The orthography of that age was more phonetic; the word was in all likeliness pronounced, with an audible final , at least until the 12th century. When that consonant become mute (like the majority of ancient final consonants in French), the word continued to be written grant (the preservation of this written form is explained by other reasons; see note), and then become grand by influence of its Latin etymology grandis, with a new (analogic) feminine form grande. The current spelling with a final mute d allows to better show the alternation between grand and grande (an alternation gran ~ grande or grant ~ grande would look less regular to the eye), as well as the lexical relation to grandeur, grandir, grandiloquent, etc. The root grand is written thus regardless of whether the d is pronounced, or mute in order for its derivatives to have a single graphic identity, which facilitates memorization and reading.

However, the ancient final of grand did not cease to be pronounced when the following word began with a vowel and belonged to the same tonic cell; It is effectively not at the end of the word anymore, since the ear identifies the stressed group (formed by univerbation), in which the final consonant and the initial vowel appear together, as a new group (or "word") within which the consonant in question has ceased to be final. Bearing in mind that stress in French falls on the last syllable of a word, or a group of words when they are bound grammatically, this situation can be symbolized as follows (the accute represents stress):
 * gránd is virtually, which becomes  at the end of a stressed syllable;
 * gránd + hómme =, which becomes grand hómme (a single group stress); grand does not elide the final consonant because the syllable is no longer stressed.

This has to do with what the hearer considers to be a word. If grand homme is analyzed as, the ear in fact understands , a continuous group of phonemes whose tonic accent signals that they form a unit. It is possible to make a division as instead of. Then this  will no longer be felt to be a final consonant but a pre-stress intervocalic consonant, and therefore it will resist the deletion that it would undergo if it were at the end of a stressed syllable. It can however undergo other modifications thereafter.

The written form, though, was adapted to criteria that are not phonetic, but etymological (among others): where grand is written, is pronounced in front of certain vowels, without that being really awkward: the maintenance of the visual alternation -d ~ -de is more productive.

The other cases are explained in a similar fashion: sang, for example, was pronounced (and written sanc) in Old French, but the final -g has replaced the -c in order to recall the Latin etymology, sanguis, and derivatives like sanguinaire, sanguin. Currently this liaison is almost never heard except in one part of the singing of the Marseillaise ("qu'un san(g) impur") or in the expression "suer sang et eau". Outside those, the hiatus is tolerated.

Finally, the case of -s and -x pronounced in liaison is explained differently. One must be aware, firstly, that word-final -x is a medieval shorthand for -us (in Old French people wrote chevax for chevaus, latter written chevaux when the idea behind this -x was forgotten). The sound noted -s and -x was a hard, which did not remain in French after the 12th century (it can be found in words like (tu) chantes or doux), but which was protected from complete elision when the following word began with a vowel (what effectively means when it was found between two vowels). However, in French, such is voiced and becomes  (which explains why, in words like rose and mise, the s is pronounced  and not ).

Note: if the final -t of grant was kept in the Middle Ages in spite of the disappearance of the corresponding, it is because there existed, along with this form, others like grants (rather written granz), wherein the was heard, protected from elisin by the following. The ancient orthography rendered this alternation visible before another one replaced it (the one with d). Indeed, it would be false to state that the orthography of Old French did not follow usage, or that it was without rules.

Fluctuating usages
Upon reading ancient documents written in a phonetic alphabet, an exercise that became common for grammarians who wished to describe the French language or to discuss its orthography from the 16th centuy onwards, it must noted that the liaisons have not been pronounced always as they are today.

For example, the Prayer by Gilles Vaudelin (a document compiled in 1713 using a phonetic alphabet, and introduced in the Nouvelle maniere d'ecrire comme on parle en France ["A New Way of Writing as We Speak in France"]), probably representative of oral language, maybe rural, of the time, shows the absence of the following liaisons (Vaudelin's phonetic alphabet is transcribed using equivalent IPA):


 * Saint Esprit: instead of ;
 * tout à Vous glorifier: ... instead of ;
 * qui êtes aux cieux: instead of.

Articles connexes

 * Types de modifications phonétiques ;
 * sandhi ;
 * phonème éphelcystique ;
 * enchaînement ;
 * métaplasme, paragoge.