True Blue (Madonna album)

True Blue is the third studio album by American singer-songwriter Madonna, released on June 30, 1986, by Sire Records. In early 1985, Madonna became romantically involved with actor Sean Penn, and married him six months later on her 27th birthday. Additionally, she met producer Patrick Leonard while on the Virgin Tour, and formed a professional relationship with him. The first songs they created together were "Love Makes the World Go Round", and the ballad "Live to Tell", which was featured on At Close Range, a film which Penn starred. In late 1985, Madonna and Leonard began working on her third studio album; she also enlisted the help of former boyfriend Stephen Bray, with whom she had worked on her previous record Like a Virgin (1984). Titled True Blue, the record saw Madonna co-writing and co-producing for the first time in her career. Inspired by Madonna's love for Penn, to whom she dedicated it, True Blue is a dance-pop album that features influences of Motown sound, girl groups, and Latin pop.

Upon release, the album was well received by critics, who complimented Madonna's vocals and musical growth. It was an immediate global success, reaching number one in a record-breaking 28 countries across the world. With over 25 million copies sold worldwide, True Blue is the best-selling album of 1986, the best-selling of the 1980s by a female artist, and one of the best-selling albums of all time. Five singles were released from the album ―all reached the top five of the Billboard Hot 100, with three going to number one. The album was promoted on Madonna's second concert tour, 1987's Who's That Girl World Tour, which visited cities in Asia, North America, and Europe. True Blue is credited as the album that established Madonna's position as the biggest female artist of the 1980s, rivaling male musicians like Michael Jackson and Prince. It's also considered the album that made her an icon and artist.

Background
In February 1985, Madonna began dating actor Sean Penn, whom she met in the set of the music video for her single "Material Girl". She recalled that Penn was someone "whose work I’d admired, and I think he felt the same way [...] We have so much in common he is almost like my brother". They dated casually and married six months later, on Madonna's 27th birthday. Afterwards, the newlyweds starred together in a movie called Shanghai Surprise (1986), which was a critical and commercial failure.

Madonna met producer Patrick Leonard while on the Virgin Tour, where he was hired as musical director. After the tour was finished, Madonna asked Leonard if he wanted to work with her. They met at a barbecue in his house, where he showed her a song he'd created in his studio called "Love Makes the World Go Round", which Madonna sang at the Philadelphia Live Aid benefit concert on July 13, 1985. Leonard and Madonna's next collaboration was a ballad called "Live to Tell", which was conceived as an instrumental for the score of Paramount's film Fire with Fire (1986). Paramount, however, rejected the track; Leonard then asked Madonna if she could write the lyrics. She complied, and decided to use the track on At Close Range, a movie starring Penn.

On April 5, 1986, Billboard reported that Madonna's new album would be called Live to Tell, and released in the summer. One month later, the title was confirmed to be True Blue, named after a favorite expression Penn's. Described by the singer as her "most personal" work at the time, she wanted to reach a wider, more mature audience. Pleased with the results of "Live to Tell", she chose to keep Leonard on the project, and also enlisted former boyfriend Stephen Bray, with whom she had worked on her second album Like a Virgin (1984), and felt could help her create "up-tempo songs with a classic Top 40 sensibility".

Development
True Blue was recorded at the Channel Studios in Los Angeles, from December 1985 to April 1986, the first year of Madonna and Penn's marriage. For the first time in her career, Madonna co-wrote and co-produced all of the album's tracks. According to Leonard, she was "very much in love" and in control when creating the record. The singer worked with Bray and Leonard separately, with the three meeting together only once. Leonard recalled the recording process: "I would put something together, usually just on piano, and then [Madonna] would come in, we'd mess around with whatever needed to be messed around with, she’d write a lyric, she’d sing it, and the next day we would do another song, one a day". On the other hand, Bray's job was to "shape things and [...] create arrangements to show off the song[s] better". "Open Your Heart" was the first track recorded for the album; it was created as a rock and roll song titled "Follow Your Heart" by Gardner Cole and Peter Rafelson for singer Cyndi Lauper. Madonna's team got a demo with songs from Cole's management, among them "Follow Your Heart"; she liked the track, changed the title, re-wrote some of the lyrics, and produced it alongside Leonard. They added a bassline underneath, changing it from a rock song into a dance one.

"Papa Don't Preach" was written by Brian Elliott for a singer named Cristina Dent. When Elliot played Dent's tracks for Warner's Michael Ostin, the same A&R executive who discovered "Like a Virgin", Ostin asked if he could play the track for Madonna; Elliot had been working with Dent for six months and was reluctant to let the song go to another artist, but he eventually gave in, finding the idea of Madonna recording his song "hard to resist". With lyrics that talk about teenage pregnancy, Madonna was attracted to the track because it "fit right in with my own personal zeitgeist of standing up to male authorities". She only contributed with additional lyrics, making "Papa Don't Preach" the only song on the album that she did not have a strong hand in writing. "La Isla Bonita" marked a "stylistic shift" for Madonna, as it's her first song to incorporate Latin motifs, and lyrics in Spanish. It was created by Leonard as an instrumental and offered to Michael Jackson, who turned it down. After meeting with the singer to start working on True Blue, Leonard presented her the demo and she wrote the lyrics while filming Shanghai Surprise. To get the correct translations, him and Madonna talked over the phone with a Hispanic housekeeper. It was described as a tribute to "the beauty and mystery of Latin American people". "Where's the Party" is the only track that saw Madonna, Bray and Leonard working together. Curtis Hudson and Lisa Stevens-Crowder, the authors of Madonna's 1983 hit "Holiday", wrote a song called "Spotlight" for the album, that was recorded but ultimately not included. Madonna dedicated True Blue to Penn, "the coolest guy in the universe".

Composition
Daryl Easlea, author of Madonna: Blond Ambition, described True Blue as a "girlish" album, "the sound of a woman in love". Made up of "highly commercial dance-pop [with] lyrics [that] convey an upbeat message along with casual autobiographical references", it contains musical references to Motown sound and girl groups. Her love for Penn "seep[s] into every song", as noted by author Lucy O'Brien. Adam Sexton pointed out that, "[Madonna] transforms her own marital bliss into high-school accessible scenarios of a girl breaking down a bad boy's defense". Opener "Papa Don't Preach" is a dance post-disco track, with lyrics that see a daughter telling her father she is pregnant and refuses to have an abortion or give up the baby for adoption, despite her friends' advice. The strings in the introduction nod to classical and Baroque music. The following track, "Open Your Heart", is a "simple" "dizzy, driving" dance-pop love song "brimming with sexual innuendo". Lyrically, it is a "tale of an unrequited love for someone seen on the street", and begins with Madonna whispering watch out! just as the opening drums kick in.

Third track "White Heat" was dedicated to actor James Cagney and named after the 1949 film of the same name. It is a "standard" uptempo dance track, with synth bass and doubletracked vocals; also present are two quotes from the original soundtrack, "with speech and gunshots", one at the beginning and one towards the end. "Live to Tell" is a pop ballad whose background instrumentation features a keyboard, a synthesizer, electric guitar and a mix of synthesized and real drumming. Lyrically, it talks about the complexity of deceit, mistrust, and "bearing the burden of some enigmatic secret and coping with a painful past". Fifth track "Where's the Party" is a dance song described by Madonna herself as a statement about "what it's like to be in the middle of this press stuff with everybody on my back". Inspired by Motown and girl groups from the 1960s, title track "True Blue" is Madonna's tribute to Penn. The verse-and-chorus composition is reminiscent of that of The Dixie Cups' "Chapel of Love" (1964), with backup singers Siedah Garrett and Edie Lehman accompanying Madonna's convincing "girly" vocals like a choir.

"La Isla Bonita" combines flamenco guitar, Latin percussion, electronic sounds, and maracas. Lyrically, it talks about a "humble observer, captured by the rhythm of an imagined island" named San Pedro, with mentions of "tropical breeze" and "nature wild and free". It starts with an introduction performed on bongos, before descending into castanets. Madonna then utters the phrase ¿Cómo puede ser verdad? ("How can it be true?"). In one line, she specifically sings, Last night I dreamt of San Pedro/Just like I'd never gone, I knew the song. One of the album's "happiest" cuts is "Jimmy Jimmy", which has influences of New wave music. In the lyrics, Madonna commemorates her "youthful fascination" with actor James Dean; "I used to fantasize that we grew up in the same neighbourhood and that he moved away and became a big star", she recalled. Closer "Love Makes the World Go Round" incorporates Latin drums and samba-influenced rhythms, and lyrics that talk about anti-war and anti-poverty.

Artwork and release
The album cover was shot by photographer Herb Ritts. It shows Madonna in profile, with her head thrown back and eyes closed against a sky-blue background; her skin is bleached-out, and her hair platinum blonde. Jeri Heiden, who was working at the Warner Bros. art department, was given the task of editing the photos to adapt them into record covers. The final photo was selected by Madonna, Heiden and Jeff Ayeroff, creative director of Warner Bros. at that time. After the image was chosen, Heiden experimented with a variety of treatments of the original, which was shot in black and white, to go along with the album's title, and finally arrived at the final, blue toned, hand tinted version. The album's inner sleeve did not feature any photographs, and instead was dedicated to album credits and song lyrics, since Madonna wanted to be represented by her work rather than her image.

Lucy O'Brien described the cover as a "moment of Warholian pop art. A mixture of innocence [and] idealism [...] Our first glimpse of Madonna as a classic icon". For J. Randy Taraborrelli, author of Madonna: An Intimate Biography, the artwork indicated how "[True Blue] was a vehicle of growth for [Madonna]"; the "washed out color photograph" cover was "understated", especially when compared to the "sexier poses" she had been associated with in the past. For Joe Lynch from Billboard, it's one of the greatest album covers of all time.

True Blue was released on June 30, 1986. In the United States and Canada, the cover did not include the singer's name. Heiden explained in an interview with Aperture magazine that the record company thought it would be "cool" to use a shrink wrap on American releases, so that when the public took it off, they'd be left with the photograph of Madonna. In Europe, Warner felt that the name was needed, as they did not want to risk messing with Madonna's popularity. The back sleeve and booklet feature the song titles in Heiden's own handwriting. About cropping the image for the cassette and vinyl releases, Heiden said: "I think the image became more interesting cropped into a square—and at that time we always started with the album cover configuration. It was like she was floating—her clothing was not visible. She took on the appearance of a marble statue—Goddess like. In the vertical cropping you see her leather jacket and the wall, and it becomes more typical, editorial, earthly". On May 22, 2001, Warner Bros. released a remastered edition of the album with two additional remixes of "True Blue" and "La Isla Bonita". Twenty years later, a 35th anniversary edition was released; it includes additional remixes, dub and instrumental versions. It was reissued on crystal clear vinyl on November 8, 2019.

Tour
True Blue was promoted on 1987's Who's That Girl World Tour, Madonna's second concert tour. It was her first world tour, and marked her first visit to Europe and Asia. Musically and technically superior to the Virgin Tour, with a larger stage and four huge video screens used as backdrops, it was described by Madonna herself as a "theatrical multimedia spectacular". Collaborating with Marlene Stewart on the wardrobe, she expanded the idea of "bringing her popular video characters to life onstage", recreating scenes from "True Blue", "Papa Don't Preach" and "La Isla Bonita". Who's That Girl was critically appreciated, with reviewers singling out the performances, Madonna's vocals and confidence as a performer. The tour's performance of "Papa Don't Preach" marked her first conflict with the Vatican, as she dedicated it to Pope John Paul II, who urged Italian fans to boycott the concerts in the country. With a total gross of US$25 million, Who's That Girl was the second most successful female tour of the year, behind Tina Turner's Break Every Rule World Tour.

Singles
In the United States, "Live to Tell" was released on March 26, 1986, whereas in Europe, the release date was April 14. It was acclaimed by critics, with some deeming it Madonna's best ballad, and singling out her vocal performance. It was also commercially successful, becoming the singer's third number one in the US Billboard Hot 100, and her first number one on the Adult Contemporary chart. The music video, directed by James Foley, shows the singer in a more demure, toned down appearance, inspired by actresses such as Grace Kelly, intercut with clips from At Close Range.

On June 11, "Papa Don't Preach" was released as True Blue's second single in the United States; in Europe, it was issued five days later. It was lauded by critics, who applauded its hook, maturity, and referred to it as a milestone in Madonna's career. It reached the top spot of the Hot 100 ―her fourth number one there― the United Kingdom, and Australia. The clip, also directed by Foley, shows the singer in her first "head-to-toe" image makeover, with a leaner, more toned body, and cropped platinum blonde hair. Its main storyline has Madonna trying to tell her father, about her pregnancy; these scenes are juxtaposed with shots of her dancing and singing in a small, darkened studio, and spending a romantic evening with her boyfriend. Shortly after its release, the song caused heated discussions about its lyrical content. Women's organizations and others in the family planning field criticized Madonna for encouraging teenage pregnancy, while groups opposed to abortion saw the song as having a positive anti-abortion message.



Title track "True Blue" was released as third single; first on Europe on September 29, and then in the United States on October 9. It was generally well received by music critics, who praised its retro-inspired sound and felt it was a throwback to girl groups. "True Blue" topped the charts in the United Kingdom, and reached the third position of the Hot 100. Two music videos were shot for the single: the official one was directed by Foley and shows Madonna with three dancers and a 1950s car in an all-blue diner. An alternate video was made through MTV's "Make My Video" contest; the three entries selected portrayed a fifties-style production, and made allusion to the song's theme.

Released in the US on November 12, 1986, and in Europe on December 1, fourth single "Open Your Heart" gave Madonna her fifth number one in Hot 100; she became the second female artist – behind Whitney Houston – to score three number ones from one album. The song received positive reviews from critics and was deemed a highlight from the album. Its accompanying music video, directed by Jean-Baptiste Mondino, depicts Madonna as an exotic dancer at a peep show who befriends a little boy. Critical reception towards the clip was generally positive: the singer was praised for presenting women as the dominant sex, but the plot of a child entering a strip club received criticism.

The last single from the album was "La Isla Bonita", released on February 25, 1987. Critics reacted positively to the song and applauded its Latin-influenced sound. Peaking at number 4, it was Madonna's eleventh top five hit on the Hot 100, a feat surpassed at the time only by the Beatles and Elvis Presley. "La Isla Bonita" also gave the singer her second Adult Contemporary number one. Mary Lambert directed the music video, which shows Madonna as two opposite characters – a young Catholic woman, and a flamenco dancer. Despite not being released as a single, "Where's The Party" received airplay on radio station WKSI "Kiss FM" due to demand from the public.

Critical reception
True Blue was generally well received by critics. AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine said it was "one of the great dance-pop albums", that showcases Madonna's skills as a "songwriter, record-maker, provocateur, and entertainer through its wide reach, accomplishment, and sheer sense of fun". This opinion was echoed by the staff of Billboard, who were impressed with the "confident" album, and the singer's growth as writer and producer. Erika Wexler from Spin wrote: "Madonna knows her days as the chanteuse for teenage romance are numbered. With perfect timing, [she] gently distanced herself from that role, and although some of the songs [on True Blue] have the sophistication of a training bra, there are glowing moments". The New York Times Stephen Holden noted that, despite lacking the "gleaming ultra-sleek aural surfaces" of Like a Virgin, True Blues made up of "shrewdly crafted teen-age and pre-teen-age ditties that reveal Madonna's unfailing commercial instincts", and find her singing with "a lot more heart". This opinion was shared by Rolling Stone, where Davitt Sigerson referred to True Blue as a "sturdy, dependable, lovable" album, and singled out the singer's voice for sounding "better than ever".

Robert Hilburn from the Los Angeles Times, pointed out that the "most obvious growth" was Madonna's voice, which is "so finely tailored that she actually extends the punch and appeal of the production touches". He went on to say: "True Blue isn't revolutionary music, but it is imaginative, highly energized pop that recognizes the limitations and pleasures of Top 40 fare". PopMatters' Peter Piatkowski also applauded the singer's more mature vocals, and deemed the record "brilliant, one that speaks to its time but also celebrates the disparate cultures that influence [Madonna's] sound at the moment". True Blue is the "most polished" of Madonna's first three albums, according to El Hunt from the Evening Standard. In the same vein, Mary Von Aue from Stereogum said it has "more vocal range and lyrical complexities" than Like a Virgin and Madonna. True Blue was hailed "nine tracks of 80s pop perfection [...] Madonna’s strongest effort from that decade" by the staff of Gay Times. For Joseph Earp from Australian website Junkee, "with its era-defining production, and sweaty sheen of subversion, [True Blue is] the singer's way of understanding everything that came afterwards [...] most pop singers never release a record this good in their whole career".

Lucy O'Brien pointed out that, whereas her debut and Like a Virgin were a "sound in development", True Blue sees Madonna "nail[ing] her signature style - rhythmic, dramatic, danceable, and distinctively melodic". Replacing Nile Rodgers with Leonard and Bray resulted in a "less polished, but more varied" album, according to The Sunday Telegraph's Larry Nager. The review ended on a somewhat critical note: True Blue is "classic pop [...] an entertaining album's worth of catchy, danceable tunes", despite "not much content beneath the candy-coating", concluded Nager. Even though he called it a "supreme archetype of '80s pop music", with its tracks being "undeniably more mature" than her previous endeavors, Slant Magazine's Sal Cinquemani felt True Blue is home to "some of [Madonna's] biggest clunkers", and is "undeniably of its time". To Karen Cooke from Australian newspaper The Age, even though it includes a couple of "tedious" tracks, "this record is full of songs to make you tap the steering wheel [and] dance in the loungeroom". True Blue's main flaw is that its five singles are "so strong they overshadow" the rest of the tracks, which seem "slight by comparison", wrote Daryl Easlea.

In less favorable reviews, John Quayle from the Observer–Reporter dismissed the record as "warmed over Go-Gos material", but applauded the singles for being "strong enough to convince even her worst critics that Madonna does have talent - and lots of it". Mary Von Aue noted that the album experiments with "different sounds that are well executed as singles", but as a whole sounds "disjointed", concluding that, "[True Blue] doesn’t live up to the strength of [its singles]". For Don McLeese from the Chicago Sun-Times, although it represents a "valiant -and necessary- attempt on Madonna's part to expand her artistic range, True Blue just isn't as much fun" as her previous records. The Record-Journal's Jim Zebora was also negative: "[True Blue] contains one absolutely marvelous torch song called 'Live To Tell' [...] Unfortunately, the rest is barely competent post-disco [...] So let's call it a C plus and program the CD player to ignore eight out of [its] nine songs". Finally, Larry Kilman, writing for American newspaper The Evening News, compared it negatively to the work of girl groups such as the Ronettes and the Shangri-Las, dismissing it as "mindless, inspid [and] air-headed", adding that, "[its] slick production and arrangements disguise much of the tininess of [Madonna's] voice [...] But that's as good as [True Blue] gets".

Commercial performance
On July 19, 1986, True Blue entered the Billboard 200 at number 29. Five weeks later, it reached the first spot; it was Madonna's second number one album after Like a Virgin, thus she became one of five female artists in the rock era to reach the top spot with back-to-back releases. It stayed on the top position for five consecutive weeks, and on the chart for a total of 82 weeks. True Blue was certified seven times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipment of over seven million units, making it Madonna's third best-selling album in the United States, behind Like a Virgin and The Immaculate Collection (1990). With the advent of the Nielsen SoundScan era in 1991, the album sold a further 404,000 copies as of August 2010. 79,000 additional copies were sold through BMG Music Clubs, which are not counted by the Nielsen SoundScan. In Canada, True Blue debuted on the 73rd spot of the RPM Albums Chart on July 5, 1986; it quickly climbed up the chart and reached the top on August 9. By July, it had surpassed the 10-times-platinum mark for 1 million sales Canadian, and was eventually certified diamond by the Canadian Recording Industry Association (CRIA) for shipment of one million copies. Madonna became the second female artist to achieve this behind Whitney Houston.

In Argentina, the album reached the chart's top spot and was certified four-times platinum by the Cámara Argentina de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas (CAPIF) for shipment of over 240,000 copies. In Brazil, True Blue sold 205,000 copies during its first-two weeks, and reached the chart's first spot; with sales of 680,000 units, it was one of the best-selling albums in 1987, and received a gold cerification by the Associação Brasileira dos Produtores de Discos (ABPD). With over 1 million copies sold, True Blue remains as the best-selling album in Brazil by an international female artist.

In Japan, the album peaked at number one on the Oricon chart. At the 1987 Japan Gold Disc Awards, held by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ), True Blue received "Album of the Year Pop Solo" and "Grand Prix Album of the Year", which was given for the year's best-selling international album, while Madonna was honored the "Artist of the Year" for being the year's best-selling international artist. In Hong Kong, the album was certified platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI). In Australia, True Blue remained on the first spot of the Kent Music Report for two weeks. Additionally, it was certified four times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipment of 280,000 copies. Similarly, it reached number one in New Zealand and was certified five times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ) for shipment of 75,000 copies.

Across Europe, True Blue sold 5 million copies by July 1987, and reached the top of the European Top 100 Albums chart. It spent a total of 31 weeks at number one, from July 19, 1986, to March 7, 1987, the longest number one album runner in the history of the European charts. In the United Kingdom, the album debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart on July 12, 1986, making it the first album by an American artist to debut at number one in British chart history. It spent six weeks at the top, shifting just shy of two million by the end of the year, and was 1986's best selling album. True Blue was certified seven times platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for shipment of 2.1 million copies and, as of June 2019, has sold over two million copies. True Blue also topped the albums chart in France and received a diamond certification by the Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique (SNEP) for shipment of one million copies. Actual sales of the album in the country stand at 1,300,000 copies as of March 2012. Similarly, in Germany True Blue also reached the first spot in Germany, and was certified two times platinum by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie (BVMI) for shipment of one million copies. It reached the first spot of the charts in Italy, Belgium, Spain, and Switzerland. According to biographer Christopher Andersen, True Blue went gold in countries where it didn't even reached number one. By August 1987, True Blue had sold over five million copies; worldwide, it has sold more than 25 million copies.

Legacy
True Blue has been noted as the album that made Madonna an icon and a "credible" artist. Stephen Thomas Erlewine deemed it the point where she "truly became 'Madonna the superstar'—the endlessly ambitious, fearlessly provocative entertainer that knew how to outrage, spark debates, get good reviews—and make good music while she's at it". From the BBC, Mark Savage wrote that it established her as "the first lady of pop", an opinion that was shared by Peter Piatkowski, who added that it made her the "dominant face on the Mount Rushmore of 1980s pop", along with Michael Jackson, Prince, and Bruce Springsteen. In a similar note, Sal Cinquemani said that with True Blue, Madonna joined the ranks of Jackson and Prince and made the transition from "pop tart to consummate artist". According to Lucy O'Brien, "with its sophisticated sheen, [True Blue] took Madonna firmly out of the dance-diva category into a global pop market". Jack White from the Official Charts Company wrote: "True Blue, her third album, saw Madonna shoot into the realms of superstardom that her previous album Like A Virgin had cemented". To Matthew Rettenmund, author of Encyclopedia Madonnica, it was the first "solid proof" of her artistic and musical talents. Patrick Leonard himself explained: "The music got more serious, so I think she got taken more seriously [...] [Madonna] took some chances that I don’t know most people would have. There were things [in True Blue] that weren’t normal in pop music at the time".

Slant Magazine considered True Blue one of the best albums from the 1980s; Jonathan Keefe wrote that it marked the point where "it became readily apparent that Madonna was more than just a flash-in-the-pan pop star. It's when she began manipulating her image —and her audience— with a real sense of clarity and purpose". Piatkowski wrote that it "set the stage for the exponential ascent of Madonna's brilliance", that began with 1989's Like a Prayer and reached its peak on 1998's Ray of Light. From music portal Albumism, Justin Chadwick conlcuded that, "[True Blue] solidified [Madonna's] blonde ambition, cemented her worldwide superstardom, and, once and for all, extinguished any remaining doubts about her potential career longevity". The album also helped popularize marketing singles, according to Billboard's Paul Grein: "10 or 20 years ago you would have had two singles from an album at the most. Now we’re in an era where Madonna is on her fifth [from True Blue]".

True Blue was 1986's best-selling album, and the best-selling of the 1980s decade by a female artist, with Madonna being 1986's most successful female. The album held the record for being number one in a total of 28 countries around the world. With over 17 million copies sold, it was named the highest-seller of all time by a female in the 1991 edition of the Guinness Book of World Records; True Blue has sold more than 25 million copies worldwide, and is one of the best-selling albums of all time.

Track listing
Notes
 * undefined signifies additional lyrics

Personnel
Credits adapted from the album's liner notes.


 * Madonna – producer, lead vocals, backing vocals (1, 2, 4–9)
 * Stephen Bray – producer (1, 5, 6, 8), keyboards (1, 5, 6, 8), drums (1, 5, 6, 8), drum programming (3, 9)
 * Fred Zarr – additional keyboards (1, 6, 8)
 * Patrick Leonard – producer (2-5, 7, 9), keyboards (2-5, 7, 9), drum programming (3, 4, 7, 9), drums (5), additional keyboards (8)
 * Bruce Gaitsch – electric guitar (1), guitars (3, 4, 7), rhythm guitar (6, 8)
 * John Putnam – acoustic guitar (1), electric guitar (1)
 * David Williams – rhythm guitar (1), guitars (2), backing vocals (3)
 * Paul Jackson Jr. – guitars (3, 9)
 * Dann Huff – guitars (5)
 * Jonathan Moffett – percussion (1, 8), drums (2, 3, 4), backing vocals (3)
 * Paulinho da Costa – percussion (2, 7, 9)
 * David Boroff – saxophone (5)
 * Billy Meyers – string arrangements (1)
 * Siedah Garrett – backing vocals (1, 5, 6, 7, 9)
 * Edie Lehmann – backing vocals (1, 5, 6, 7, 9)
 * Keithen Carter – backing vocals (3)
 * Jackie Jackson – backing vocals (3)
 * Richard Marx – backing vocals (3)
 * Michael Verdick – engineer, mixing
 * Michael Hutchinson – keyboard overdub engineer (8)
 * Dan Nebenzal – mix assistant
 * Steve Hall – mastering
 * Channel Recording Studios (Los Angeles, California) – recording location
 * Master Control (Burbank, California) – mixing location
 * Future Disc (Hollywood, California) – mastering location
 * Jeffrey Kent Ayeroff – art direction
 * Jeri McManus – art direction, design
 * Herb Ritts – photography
 * Weisner-DeMann Entertainment – management