Universal causation

Universal causation is the proposition that everything in the universe has a cause and is thus an effect of that cause. This means that if a given event occurs, then this is the result of a previous, related event. If an object is in a certain state, then it is in that state as a result of another object interacting with it previously.

The idea of universal causation is formulated in western philosophy similarly for ages, however the formulations contain some profound differences in methodology and philosophical assumptions. Examples:

In contrast, Bertrand Russell argued (in 1912) that the law of causation as usually stated by philosophers is false and is not used in sciences (maybe with exception of their infancy). However his position on universal causation evolved and "was not as naive as it may have appeared". In 1927 Russell writes that the notion of universal causation marks the beginnings of science and philosophy.

Philosophers who do believe in exception-less, universal, fundamental laws of nature are in recent times more often referred to as "fundamentalists", however these who present "anti-laws" efforts (for instance showing that in many cases laws of sciences are ceteris paribus laws) "pluralists" are in the minority.

As axioms of causality
According to William Whewell (hypothetico-deductivist view) the concept of universal causation depends on three axioms:
 * 1) Nothing takes place without a cause.
 * 2) The magnitude of an effect is proportional to the magnitude of its cause.
 * 3) To every action there is an equal and opposed reaction.

Whewell writes that the first axiom is so clear that it requires no proof if only the idea of cause is understood.

Example
Example for the axiom: if a baseball is moving through the air, it must be moving this way because of a previous interaction with another object, such as being hit by a baseball bat.

Criticism
An epistemological axiom is a self-evident truth. Thus the "Axiom of Causality" claims to be a universal rule that is so obvious that it does not need to be proved to be accepted. Even among epistemologists, the existence of such a rule is controversial.

As Law of Universal Causation or Principle of Universal Causation (PUC)
John Stuart Mill describes the Law of Universal Causation in following way:

Contrary to hypothetico-deductivists Mill focuses on inductive reasoning and observations in framing of the Law of Universal Causation i.e. uses basic features of experimental methods and convinces, after critical analysis, that this law is proved by induction better than any other of subordinate generalizations.

Also popular proof and answer to skepticism (for instance that of David Hume) is that PUC has been true in so many cases, that (using basic inductivist scientific method enumerative inductive reasoning) it is reasonable to say that it is true in every case, moreover counter-example i.e. event that does not have a cause is hard to conceive.

Criticism
Modern version of law of universal causation is connected with Newtonian physics, but is also criticized for instance by David Hume who presents skeptical reductionist view on causality. Since then his view on the concept of causality is often predominating (see Causality, After the Middle Ages). Kant answered to Hume in many aspects, defending the a priority of universal causation.

In 2017 book Robert C. Koons & Timothy Pickavance point out four objections to Universal Causation:
 * 1) If we additionally assume mereological universalism, universal causation doesn't exclude self-causation, which is controversial.
 * 2) Pluralized causal principle - there are pluralized versions of universal causation, that allow exceptions to the principle.
 * 3) Robert K. Meyer's causal chain principle, uses set theory axioms, assumes that something must cause itself in set of causes and so universal causation doesn't exclude self-causation.
 * 4) Against infinite regress.

Spontaneity
One implication of Universal Causation is that if a phenomenon appears to occur without any observable external cause, the cause must be internal.

Variation
Another implication of the Universal Causation is that all change in the universe is a result of the continual application of physical laws.

Determinism
If all events are cause and effect relationships that follow universal rules, then all events—past, present and future—are theoretically determinate.

First Cause and possible exceptions
If all effects are the result of previous causes, then the cause of a given effect must itself be the effect of a previous cause, which itself is the effect of a previous cause, and so on, forming an infinite logical chain of events that can have no beginning (see: Cyclic model), however usually it is assumed that there is one (see: Big Bang, the religious belief in Creationism or pseudo-scientific idea of Intelligent design).

Exception for the Universal Causation - First Cause is sometimes pointed out to be logically necessary for it to not contradict itself. Infinite chain of events is hard to conceive in finite world. The answer is looped chain of events. But this is also questioned as the whole loop would have no cause. However it can not be ruled out that the Universe is infinite in time or can expand infinitly.

Other exceptions are pointed out - only every of the following things are caused:
 * contingent and unnecessary,
 * causable,
 * that have beginning,
 * finite.