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Petroglyphs in Armenian Highland
Petroglyphs are historical and cultural sources, representing the main spheres of our ancestors’ activity in the frames of a complete system displaying their life realities and worldview. Rock-art in Armenia began in the Neolithic period, reaching its peak during the Bronze Age. As a specific form of expressing emotion and information, rock-carvings represent a means of communication. In the past, Rock-art had the functions of Recording, Storage and Conveying; now it has cognitive and aesthetic functions. In adjacent to the Armenian Highland regions ancient petroglyphs are not much, while in the Highland a high concentration of them is observed, as well as thematic and typological diversity. The ancient inhabitants of Armenia have created huge galleries, mountain sanctuaries, consisting of thousands of drawings.

Location
The main part of the pecked petroglyphs is located at altitudes up to 3300 m a.s.l., mainly on the slopes of the Geghama, Vardenis, Vayq, Syuniq, Zangezur, Qarvachar, Shatakh, Korduq mountain ridges and Mt. Aragatz. On the territory of the Republic of Armenia petroglyphs are found in Aragatzotn (Agarak, the slopes of Aragatz, Aruch, Geghamavan, Ernjatap, Kaqavadzor, Aragatzotn, Mastara, Shamiram, Old Shenik, Voskehat, Tghmut, Quchak, Oshakan), in Armavir, (Metzamor, Armavir, St. Gayane, St. Hripsime), in Gegharquniq (Lchashen, Mt. Sevsar, Vardenik, Vardenyats Pass, Vardenis Ridge), in Yerevan (Avan), in Lori (Loriberd, Koges, Neghots), in Kotayq (Balahovit, Bjni, Geghama Ridge, Geghard, Zovuni, Ptghnavanq), in Shirak (Yereruyq, Haykadzor, Horom, Dzithanqov), in Syuniq (Zoratsqar, Mt. Tzghuk-Ukhtasar, Jermajur, Karkar), in Vayotsdzor (Teqsar Ridge, nearby of headwaters of rivers Arpa and Yeghegis, Mt. Sartsali), and in Tavush (Gosh). In Artsakh Republic they are on the outskirts of Shushi and near the village Tandzatap, in Karvachar area – in Eghtsategh, on the slopes of the mountains Erakatar, Harsnakar, Ishkhanasar, and Lulpar, on the banks of lakes Tsalq, Sev, and Al. On the East from Javakhq petroglyphs have been found near Tsalka, in Nakhijevan – near Astapat, St. Mariam, Paraka and on the west slopes of Navasar. The oldest rock-carvings are known on the west shore of the Caspian Sea, on the Apsheron peninsula and in Kabristan area, which at certain stages of history were part of Great Armenia or in the sphere of its influence. In Western Armenia many Rock-art sites are known: nearby of headwaters of Aratzani river, Azat, Zarishat (in Vanand), Gomshut (in Kaghzvan), Tsolakert on the northern slope of Mt. Ararat, on the East of Vaspurakan – on the right bank of Araks river (Arasbaran, Vanestan, Songun) and in the vicinity of the river Tghmut (Bastam), the western shore of Kaputan Lake (Mt. Zambil), near Van Lake – Andzav, Artamet, Buth, Gaytis, Haykaberd, Marvana, Nar, Van citadel, Pakan, Ororan. A huge cluster of petroglyphs has been found in Shatakh mountains – in Tirishin, and in Jogha Mountains – Gavarak, Sat, Sev Ler. They are also in Alki (in Korduq), in Armenian Mesopotamia, and in the west of the Armenian Highland (Adyaman, Aryutzablur, Bagarich, Partizak, Malatya, Portablur, Kharberd.

Types and technique
The vast majority of ancient petroglyphs of Armenia are carved on unhewn surfaces of hard volcanic stones. Dimensions of drawings vary from 10 cm up to 5 m, with depth of 1-20 mm and furrow width of 3-30 mm.

Content
Rock-art convey information about the environment, life and traditions, crafts and skills, arts and knowledge of ancient people, about their spiritual world – mythology and world perceptions. In the thematic diversity of Armenian petroglyphs four main spheres are defined: nature, everyday life, results of human creation and his inner world. Their rich content is divided by me into 31 thematic groups: terrain elements (mountain, river, lake, spring), the Earth, heavenly luminaries (stellar group, constellation, Zodiac, Milky Way), celestial phenomena (eclipse, comet, meteor), atmospheric phenomena (lightning, clouds, rain, rainbow), earth phenomena (volcano), plants, animals, agriculture, hunting, animal figthing, martial arts, sports, competitions, dance, weapons, instruments, transportation means, constructions, applied images, means of education, play tools, costume, cult, mythical creatures, beings' anatomy, portrait, uncertain images, ornaments, symbols and letter-like signs. The majority of images are those of flora and fauna (tree, flower, bezoar, mouflon, deer, gazelle, horse, bull, tour, bison, wild boar, bear, leopard, cheetah, lion, wolf, dog, fox, snake, birds), as well as mythical creatures, vishaps (dragon). Human life and activities are reflected (hunting, fighting, animal husbandry, n, land cultivating, plowing  ), ceremonial life]] and rituals (worship of motherhood, ancestors, deities, heroes, twins, good spirits, fertility, time). Many images depict man in scenes of sports and competing, playing games and dancing. Very often are shown weapons, tools and accessories (bow and arrow quiver, shield, spear, mace, baton, hook, lasso, plow, network, ladder), vehicles and transportation means (cart, chariot, boat, skiing, sleigh). Ancient scientific thought is expressed in sky maps, calendars, compasses, and in the plans of surroundings and irrigation systems, in the drawings of buildings (dwelling, settlement, tomb). Some rock-carvings have applied astronomical significance: solar (30/31-day, 12-month, 354/365-day annual) and lunar (7, 14 and 28/29-day) calendars (fig. 19-20), sunrise, sunset and Earth poles markers. There is a variety of patterns, symbols, including signs, similar to the letters of the Armenian and other ancient alphabets (fig. 21). Some signs almost in the same shape and meaning were in use up to medieval times in Armenian ideogram system. One can see many sketches, hyperbolic, schematic, precise and unfinished images, as well as examples of complex projection and perspective (fig. 22), palimpsest and portrait. Some of the above mentioned thematic groups – star charts, letter-like signs, dragons, calendars, etc., are either absent in other parts of the world or rarely met. Violent scenes are completely absent among them. There are close ties between Rock-art and other spheres of Armenian culture. Most of the themes, styles and types of ancient petroglyphs have passed on through centuries, invariably and almost identically reflected in compositions of ceramics, on bronze belts and votive plates, bas-reliefs, ornaments of weapons, statuettes and seals, coins, khachkars, costume, carpets, frescoes of the Van Kingdom and those of the Middle Ages, reaching their apogee in miniatures.

Research methodology
This unique type of informatic source is reliable only in the case of considering the petroglyphs together, study them comprehensively and systematically, i.e. to find all the pictures, fix them by technical means (photography, video, copying, aerial photography, accurate GPS mapping, and 3D recording) and classify them.

Dating
Usually scientists use comparative biological, geological, archaeological methods and complex studies for age determination in general. In case of engraved images the precise dating is extremely difficult because it is impossible to apply traditional well-known methods of natural sciences (radiocarbon dating, dendrochronology, pigment, spectral, palaeomagnetic, pollen, ultrasonic, collagen analyses, etc.). Consequently, the only methods are relative-comparatives, based on the analysis of content, style and technique of drawing with other archaeological monuments: nearby structures (settlement, burial place) and artifacts (tools, weapons, ornaments, patterns, painting on ceramics). These historical-cultural comparisons give too approximate evaluations and indicate the age with accuracy up to 1-2 thousand years. Thus, in Armenology it is accepted that the era of petroglyphs lasted from 7th to 1st millennia BC, i.e. before the Cuneiform period. For absolute dating of carved images most reliable are the astronomical methods. For easier orientation in the dark sky, about 5000 years ago man formed from the bright stars sustainable and memorable images – constellations. The description of constellations comes from the Alexandrian poet Arattes, written upon Eudoxes’ work (IV Ce. BC). Arattes speaks about deep and unknown antiquity of the origins of constellations. In 1910, the historian of astronomy William Olcot, summing up thе аssumptions of the archaeologist Edward Maunder, astronomers Carl Swartz, Camille Flammarion and Arthur Berry, came to the conclusion that the Zodiac constellations were formed and got their names on the latitudes of 36-42°, by people who lived on the Euphrates valley and in the vicinity of Mt. Ararat, in 30-28 Ce. BC. He wrote: Astronomy unites with history and archaeology in pointing to the Euphrates Valley, and, as we might expect, the region of Mt. Ararat, as the home of those who originated the ancient constellation figures... We have left Asia Minor and Armenia, a region bounded by the Black, Mediterranean, Caspian, and Aegean seas, as the logical birthplace of the stellar figures. Scientists have made these conclusions theoretically, by examining astro-geographical (from which latitude and which period of the past were seen those constellations), zoo-geographical (areas of animals represented in the Zodiac) and general archaeological data. They did not know about the cosmological perceptions and their material realization in form of artifacts (astronomical constructions, observatories, belt-calendars, shield-calendars, and especially the astronomical rock-drawings) in Armenia. European authors' analytical conclusions are corroborated by the material discovered during the last 60 years – engraved star-groups, calendars, maps, astronomical centers (Metzamor (1967), Vardenyats Pass and Sevsar (1968), Zoratsqar (1986), Portablur (1995), etc.), findings in the archaeological sites (Astghaberd and Koghes (1990), Agarak (1991), Arpi (2018), etc.), mainly dating back to III-II millennia BC. On Basen field, near the village Tandzut there is a huge structure called Sharvan Qarer, on the north shore of Van Lake, near the village Lezq huge rows of stones are preserved, both with possible calendar meaning (fig. 24). The bronze shields of Van Kingdom kings and priests also served as calendars. It is obvious that those who first divided the sky into constellations were prehistoric inhabitants of the Armenian Highland. In 1968, architect Suren Petrosyan found at the top of the Vardenyats Pass (2410 m), a dozen of large stone slabs with engraved rings. Being on the ancient caravan route (later – a branch of the Silk Road), protected by cyclopean fortresses, they very likely have had ritual and orientation significance serving as a guide. In 1969, an Armenian historian of astronomy, Prof. Benik Tumanyan identified those images with Zodiac constellations of Leo, Sagittarius and Scorpio. The stars are represented by dots and circles, accordingly to their brightness. In 1995, an astronomical method of their absolute dating was developed by me. It is a common knowledge from astronomy that all the stars have their proper movements. Thus, engraved stellar configurations, though different from their current-day arrangement, remain recognizable. Reconstructing the shape and position of the constellation in the past and comparing them with the view of the rock-carving, the precise time it was carved can be received. Thus, the age of the above-mentioned rock-carving with images of Zodiac constellations of Leo, Sagittarius and Scorpio is determined as 27-25 Ce. BC. In 1968, on the North slope of Mt. Sevsar of Vardenis Ridge at a distance of 9 km from Sevsar astronomical maps, at the altitude of 2670 m, Suren Petrosyan found a great complex of carvings with astronomical content – 20 pictured rock-pieces within an area of 50 by 20 m. Benik Tumanyan interpreted the image on the main huge stone as a result of observation of a rare celestial phenomenon – a large meteor, and the adjoining figures and signs are constellations and the Milky Way branch. Thus, it is a stellar sky map, which shows the sector of the Sky from where the bolide descended (fig. 26). In 2000, I expressed an opinion that Sevsar could give opportunity for its dating. Supposing that the three lines on the right part of the image show the direction of the bolide’s flight, I pointed to noticed by me the 30-meter diameter and 5 m deep crater at the foothill of Mt. Azhdahak (3597 m) and suggested that it was the probable result of meteorite falling (fig. 27). When the meteorite (or its fragments) and the traces of its impact are found in the crater, the time of the collision (formation of crater) may be defined by natural science methods. Respectively, this will afford the more precise dating of the Sevsar astronomical complex. These two astronomical methods make possible the absolute chronology of about 35 rock-images.

Past references to Rock-art
Father of Armenian historiography Movses Khorenatsi (V Ce.) knew about rock-images in Armenia. He mentions, in the form of a myth narrative, two striking evidences of Rock-art. In connection with the rock-carvings made by the epic hero and demiurge Torq Angegh the historian writes: They sang that he took in his fist hard stones, … crunch them into large and small pieces at will, polish them with his nails, and form them into tablet shapes, and likewise with his nails inscribe eagles and other such designs on them. And, about creation of the alphabet by Mesrop Mashtots (V Ce.), the historian writes: And he saw not a drean in sleep, not a vision while awake, but in the depths of his heart there appeared to the eyes of his soul a right hand writing on rock; for the stone retained as tracks are traced in snow... Arising from prayer he fasioned our alphabet: Ա, Ե, Է, Ի, Ո, Ւ... Armenian philosopher, mathematician and astronomer Anania Shirakatsi (VII Ce.) preserved more direct information: the receptors of our ancestors were more sensitive than ours, due to which they could notice not only the movement of the Sun but also of all the other luminaries and stars, and could carve and recognize them. This fragment saved by the coryphaeus of Armenian science, is the earliest in the world written evidence about the existence and antiquity of rock-drawings. It is very important that Shirakatsi mentions this sequence of studying phases: carve and recognize, i.e. first the noticed positions of heavenly bodies had to be recorded, fixed (collecting and accumulating the knowledge), and only after that they had to be researched and recognized (understanding the rules of luminaries’ movements). As mentioned above, astronomical processes are very slow, and man cannot notice and remember the considerable displacements of stars during his lifetime, therefore, periodical recordings were needed. A striking example is an unusual petroglyph in Geghama mountains, at the foot of Mt. Astghaberd, at an altitude of 2920 m. The rock is situated on the top of the dominating hill, it has 1 m length and is firmly fixed among the other stones. In 2002 I suggested the idea that it was a table of astronomical records, which showed the visibility of two certain celestial bodies being observed, perhaps planets, stars, constellations. Such an imaging makes possible to compare the relative movements of luminaries. Our ancestor, an astronomer of his time, in this manner could accumulate information about the position and visibility of luminaries, and only then, with this records, made conclusions about their movements. Thus, the above-mentioned citation from Shirakatsi together with this petroglyph witness about the deep origins of cosmological ideas in the Armenian Highland.

Research history
The discovery and research of rock-carvings in Armenia began in 1886. First published and interpreted petroglyph in scientific periodicals in the world were in Armenia – in journal “Ararat”. At the beginning of the XX Ce. Mesrop Ter-Movsesian, Grigor Kapantsyan, Ashkharhbek Kalantar investigated hundreds of petroglyphs on Mt. Aragats, and Levon Lisitsyan – in Geghama mountains. Since the second half of the century, archaeologists and amateurs found several thousand images in Syuniq, Vardenis and Geghama Ridges, and also in lowland areas. Later Armenian archaeologists Grigor Karakhanyan, Harutyun Martirosyan, Hasmik Israelyan, Sandro Sardaryan, and architect Suren Petrosyan published five volumes of their studies (about 2200 hand reproductions and 42 photographs of rock-carvings). Historians Lavrenti Barseghyan and Argam Ayvazyan published articles devoted to Aragatz and Navasar petroglyphs. This area of research is currently coordinated by the Institute of History of NAS RA, and founded by me ARARA–T (Armenian Rock-Art Research Academy – Tir). In 2024 was published my illustrated monography “Petroglyphs of Armenia”.

Conclusions
Thus, the creators of Rock-art had unified ethno-cultural identity, as it is evidenced by the thematic, stylistic and technical uniformity of the known monuments of the Armenian Highland. The thematic connection between Rock-art and other spheres of Armenian culture is obvious, particularly with fine arts and decorative-applied arts (weapons, ceramics, garment, carpet weaving, miniature), dance, theater, types of combat, vehicles, architectuvehicles ell as calendar, writing, folklore, and mythology. The traditions of Rock-art are preserved among Armenians up to our days. Extension in time, continuity of this sphere of culture is obvious. A striking evidence of this are the close similarities by thematics, technique and style between Rock-art and other fields of culture (sculpture, lapidary inscriptions, construction and architecture) at different ages. Commonality of petroglyphs indicates to the presence of a united worldview, of the same linguistic thinking, of beliefs system and pantheon, as well as of the beginning of centralized government – the elements of statehood. Culture, in all spheres of its manifestations, is distributed in the Armenian Highland almost equally, so it is presented as one entity of anthropological and cultural context that has never been interrupted in the course of the time (hundreds of millennia) and space (about 400.000 km2). The creators of petroglyphs led sedentary life for many millennia, that helped to create for further generations. Accumulation and transmission of information by petroglyphs have provided viability and effectiveness of the individual and society through the preservation of knowledge, skills and traditions. This, in its turn, contributed to the preservation of the natural environment, the mentality of the society, and as a result, the security and the very existence of the people. Petroglyphs were created by the millennia old, indigenous ethnos – by Armenians. Rock-art was an original and primary creation, and inherent to Armenians, native and traditional, and also exclusive in its time. Powerful ethnocultural impulses spread out from the Armenian Highland. The tradition of Rock-art, its semantics and mastery of performance demonstrate radial distribution, i.e. there has been a dissemination of worldview from this ancient center of civilization in the form and by means of petroglyphs. Linguistic localization of the Indo-European homeland in the Armenian Highland, theories systematizing numerous credible extralinguistic facts (archaeological, ethnographical, astronomical, calendar, etc.) are evidences of the leading role of the Armenian culture in Ancient World civilization.