User:123Bolivia456/sandbox

 Topic paragraph 

Universidad Indigena Campesina en RED (Indigenous University for rural work in RED)

Universidad Indigena Campesina en RED (Indigenous University for rural work in RED) is an independent civil association managed by a Mayan community in Yucatan, Mexico. Considered an intercultural university by law in Mexico, it serves indigenous and rural youth from vulnerable and marginalised communities, equipping them with the necessary skills and knowledge to transition into the professional workplace. Comprised of four core pillars, this Wikipedia article will first delineate the history of the university, including the wider Mexican indigenous social and educational context in which it was founded. Subsequently, it will explain the political foundations upon which the university operates, including the rationale behind the university naming themselves a civil association rather than an intercultural university. This will dovetail into the following section, which details the university’s educational scope, including their curriculum and range of courses. Finally, the article will end with a punctual description of how the university is funded.

 Essay draft- International Education (3000 words) 

Essay question: The relationship between curriculum and power in a country of your choosing (topic from week 8).

 Introduction (300 words) 

-       General background information:

·      Two short sentences will explain the situation of the education of the indigenous population in Mexico (Rivas and Sanchez, 2022; Stabb, 1959).

-        State the main essay topic concisely and accurately in two or one sentence:

·      Education as a tool to fit in society: A person studies certain types of skills to fit in a particular model of society. This model can embrace a racist discourse by normalising and teaching specific ways of thinking and different types of behaviours in schools, and this is possible due to the 'hidden curriculum'. The hidden curriculum in schools is the tool that power uses to perpetuate these systems and inequalities. Power is the tool that maintains and creates the hidden curriculum in schools. An example of this relationship between power and hidden curriculum is Mexico. In Mexico, the empowerment of the white population and the disempowerment of the indigenous population can be seen with the maintenance of school systems that have normalised a racist discourse throughout the indigenous and mestizo population.

-       Definition of Curriculum and Power with a poststructuralist perspective (Edkins, 2007)

-       Becoming more focused.

-       Thesis statement:

·      This paper will argue that the relationship between curriculum and power in Mexico can be explained when different groups of the population are differentially empowered or disempowered due to racists biases that perpetuate a particular system and model of society.

-        Essay Plan (This part will explain how I will answer my thesis statement with my different sections).

 Main Body (2600 words) 

Section 1 ( Hidden curriculum - 800 words)

Section1.1 ( Terminology and theory  - 400 words)

The hidden curriculum and social education: how particular aspects of the collective culture are presented in schools as objective truth and factual knowledge, which maintain certain types of political and economic systems in society (interconnections between schools,  institutions, ideology, and curriculum)

-       Teaching different values and dispositions to different school populations to maintain systematic racism (Apple, 1990 and Apple, 1995).

-       Maintaining a specific type of curriculum to keep some people out (Apple, 1990 and Apple, 1995).

-       Ideological hidden messages: In the content of the 'formal' curriculum and the social relations in schools (Apple, 1990 and  Giroux and Penna, 1979).

-       'Unstated' values, norms, and beliefs are transmitted to students through discourse structures in the hidden curriculum and students' social relations. These hidden discourses can be presented in the form of discrimination, white superiority, and neo-racism (Giroux and Penna, 1979).

-        There are complex relationships of power/knowledge between educational institutions and the nation's economic and political interests (Giroux and Penna, 1979).

Section 1.2 (Empirical cases of study  based in section 1.1– 400 words)

-        Example: Hidden curriculum as a tool of education control through textbooks given by the State, and the centralization of the management of the 'formal curriculum by the State in Mexico (Secretaria de Educacion Publica, 2009; Rivas and Sanchez, 2022 and McGehee and Griffith, 2001).

-       Empirical evidence about the Yucatan school system, along with testimonies of members of the Mayan community, uncovers a  common phenomenon frequently obliterated or denied by neo-colonial political structures in the form of discourse that disguises the systemic racism practised against the indigenous population (Mijangos-Noh, 2009).

-       Consequences of systematic racism that is maintained through hidden curriculum and power relations in education: In Mexico, a regular primary education teacher, to carry out their work, has access to approximately 29 books and materials of didactic support in Spanish. Nevertheless,  a teacher who works in a Mayan indigenous primary school will only receive three books that are not bilingual, are only in Spanish (Mijangos-Noh, 2009)

Section 2 ( Power - 800 words)

Section 2.1 (Terminology and theory – 400 words)

Foucault's definition of power in which power relations are in superstructural positions, with solemnly having a role of accompaniment or prohibition (Edkins,2007).

-       As Foucault pointed out, power has a productive role that comes into play in different circumstances; in this case, it can be seen in the hidden curriculum in schools and in the development of different educational policies (Edkins, 2007).

-        Cultural hegemony through policy.

-       Policy as discourse: Policies are processes and outcomes that reflect the society itself (Ball, 1993).

-       Education policies are not exterior to inequalities. Although, these inequalities can change, inflect, affect, and deflect the result of policies (Ball, 1993 and Apple, 1995).

Section 2.2 (Empirical cases of study based in section 2.1 – 400 words)

-       Example: "Policy and power" of education in Mexico (particular focus on indigenous population) (Rivas and Sanchez, 2022)

1.     The State has a central role in creating the normative for the curriculum in Mexico. However, this role is neither unique nor autonomous, nor organic in regulating the different roles and practices of the education system that are affected by power relations (Rivas and Sanchez, 2022).

2.     The Mexican government has set control over the cultural diversity of the population in the education system since the 19th century. (Rivas and Sanchez, 2022).

-       Neo-racism and colonial hangover can be seen when laws,  which protect diversity and the indigenous population, are not adequately respected (Mijangos-Noh, 2009).

Section 3 (Solutions- 800 words)

Section 3.1 (Terminology and general based support – 400words)

-       Shift the main focus and role of education from an ahistorical and technical perspective of schooling to a sociopolitical view that focuses more on the relationship between schooling and the idea of social justice, struggle of conflict, and revolutions (Giroux and Penna, 2001; Apple, 1990).

Section 3.2 ( Empirical examples of solutions already applied in Mexico – 400 words)

-       Teaching the Mexican revolution, which was focused on agrarian reform and indigenous rights (Stabb, 1959)

-       Fomenting different types of knowledge that empower certain groups of the population. 'Indigenismo ' is a clear example of an alternative type of knowledge, which provides awareness of the indigenous culture and  'mestizo' population. This way of thinking became essential two decades after the Mexican Revolution ( Stabb, 1959).

 Conclusion(300 words) 

·   Summary of the main points of the essay

·   A reference to the introduction.

·   Reaffirming my thesis statement with a short sentence showing that I was able to prove my argument.

·   Final evaluation of the essay.

 References 

Apple, M.W. (1995) 'The Other Side of the Hidden Curriculum'. Education and power. 2nd ed .New York: Routledge, pp. 35-61.

Apple, M.W. (1990) ' Curricular history and social control'. Ideology and curriculum. 2 ed. New York: Routledge, pp. 43-61.

Apple, M.W. (1990) 'The hidden curriculum and the nature of conflict '. Ideology and curriculum. 2 ed. New York: Routledge, pp. 61-82.

Ball, S.J. (1993) 'WHAT IS POLICY? TEXTS, TRAJECTORIES AND TOOLBOXES'. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education.13(2), pp. 10-17, DOI: 10.1080/0159630930130203

(Accessed: 11 March 2022).

Edkins,J. (2007) 'Poststructuralism'. International Relation Theory for the twenty-first century: an introduction. In J. Griffiths, m. (ed.) London: Reutlege, pp.88-98.

Giroux, H.A &  Penna, A.N. (1979) 'Social Education in the Classroom: The Dynamics of the Hidden Curriculum'. Theory & Research in Social Education. 7(1), pp. 21-42, DOI: 10.1080/00933104.1979.10506048 (Accessed: 14 March 2022).

McGehee, J. J., & L. K. Griffith, L.K (2001). 'Large-Scale Assessments Combined with Curriculum Alignment: Agents of Change'. Theory into Practice. 40 (2), pp. 137–144. DOI:10.2307/1477275 (Accessed: 15 March 2022).

Mijangos-Noh, J.C. (2009) 'Racism against the Mayan Population in Yucatan, Mexico: How Current Education Contradicts the Law'. Yucatan: Universidad Autonoma de Yucatan. Available at: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED505698.pdf (Accessed: 10 March 2022).

Rivas, A. and Sanchez, B. (2022) 'Race to the classroom: the governance turn in Latin American education. The emerging era of accountability, control and prescribed curriculum'. Compare. 52(2), pp. 250–268. DOI:10.1080/03057925.2020.1756745 (Accessed: 16 March 2022).

Secretaría de Educación Pública (2009) Historia de La CONALITEG (1944-1982). Mexico DF: Secretaría de Educación Pública.

Stabb, M. S. (1959). 'Indigenism and Racism in Mexican Thought: 1857-1911'. Journal of Inter-American Studies. 1(4). pp, 405–423. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2307/165117 (Accessed: 12 March 2022).

 Peer Assessment 

 The essay draft that I have written feedback: User:Nanami Warabino/sandbox 

Wiki article / essay checklist

OVERALL COMMENTS

What are the key strengths and weaknesses of this text?

Strengths: Overall is a good start. The student has a clear argument and a good case of study to prove her/his point. In addition, it has a general structure to start the process of essay writing.

Weaknesses: The student needs to find more sources and more variety of them to prove her/his point of view. There is not enough information for an essay of 3000 words. Moreover, the structure needs to improve, and more empirical examples are necessary to prove the thesis statement. Finally, there is no conclusion and bibliography, which is essential in an essay.

Peer assessment by :User:Etmh20/sandbox

OVERALL COMMENTS

What are the key strengths and weaknesses of this text?

Strengths: very clear structure and great case study

Weakness: not a lot of references and need different perspectives.

 Final Essay - International Education and Development 

Candidate number: 221859

A Hangover from Colonialism: How are racism and colonial influence in the Mexican education system responsible for the disparity in school educational outcomes between indigenous and non-indigenous communities in Mexico?

World count: 2954

Introduction

Like the European powers before them, since the dawn of its colonisation of Mexico, the Spanish empire used racism skilfully as a weapon through which to establish the dominance of the Spanish ‘white’ culture at the expense of indigenous people. Naturally, this involved generalising and assigning weight to the imaginary differences of indigenous people to justify the colonisers’ aggression and privileges. This was sustained and underpinned through the formation and deployment of colonial discourses about the ‘other’ which deem them as alien, backward and inferior (Torres, 2010 and Aguilar Nery, 2012). Unfortunately, the racial disparities which began to widen during colonisation remain prevalent in Mexican society. This paper will spotlight one critical area where this is reflected: educational outcomes.

To spotlight the role of the racism and colonial influence in creating these racial disparities in educational outcomes, the paper will be subdivided into three core sections. First, the paper will discuss how historical contingencies tie into the modern Mexican education system, highlighting the importance of education as a tool to maintain colonial discourse. Subsequently, the connection between colonialism, curriculum, and educational outcomes will be closely interrogated with reference to the policies of the Mexican government. Here, the failings of the neoliberal government to achieve its goal of inclusion will also be explored, followed by a dedicated section which will provide prescribe alternative solutions to tackle these racial disparities.

Taken together, the sections will each make use of empirical data to demonstrate how the educational system has underserved indigenous communities and aggravated an already wide racial disparity in educational outcomes. At its core, the paper unearths the education system as a vessel for the continued influence of colonial discourse, disempowering indigenous populations in the name of ‘assimilation’ and undermining their linguistic and cultural roots.

Colonial scars in education

Fundamentally, the Mexican state was formed out of the crucible of colonialism, underpinned by racist undertones and orientalist views about the ‘other’. Mexico was a Spanish colony from 1521 to 1810 (Lopez Caballero, 2008 and Hamel, 2008), resulting in over 200 years of enforced colonial domination and indoctrination (Lopez Caballero, 2008 and Hamel, 2008). However, the colonialist discourse dispersed during Spanish rule did not end there. Rather, the intellectuals which would lead Mexico to its independence from the Spanish Empire were themselves raised in a colony with an education that perpetrated a racist colonial discourse. The remnants of this can be seen in Mexican primary education system to this day (Velasco Cuz and Baronnet, 2016 and Hamel, 2008).

Crucially, colonial ideas about the indigenous community spilled over into the new Mexican state and the very justification it used for its legitimacy. Indeed, from its establishment, the new ‘unified’ Mexican state was deemed incompatible with an autonomous indigenous community with distinct languages (Hamel, 2008). Put simply, indigenous populations had to be forcibly integrated into the ‘new Mexico’ in order for it to be considered viable. This was driven by ‘Hispanicization’, the forced cultural assimilation of indigenous communities (Hamel, 2008). Education was a critical pillar of this ethnic policy of Hispanicization. The focus on education is owed to the fact that racist ideas perpetrated by colonialism do not occur naturally. Rather, they are rooted in ideological and mental processes (Baronnet, 2013), which must be necessarily taught and learned (Baronnet, 2013 and Baronnet and Velasco, 2016). In the Mexican context, education was accordingly used as a tool through which to  transmit colonial beliefs, values and norms to children through a hidden structure of both formal content and social relation of classroom life (Giroux and Penna, 1979 and Apple, 1990). Through this lens, indigenous peoples had to be "educated" as a prerequisite to them becoming modern Mexican citizens (Martinez Buenabad, 2011).

Fundamentally, the Western model of the school experience is foreign to indigenous children. Indeed, where indigenous education in Mexico has traditionally been based on the oral transmission of knowledge through observation and imitation, Mexican schools have focused more on written-based education (Observatorio Ciudadano de la Educación, 2018 and Koster, 2016). The racial inequality bred by the enforcement of the latter educational system have been reflected in the application of standardised tests in Spanish (Rojas Cortes, 2008, Tapia Uribe, 2003) and poor educational outcomes for indigenous children.

Of the 32 states in Mexico, 85% of the indigenous population can be found in just 9 states, which together have the lowest levels of  primary schooling in the country (Tapia Uribe, 2003 and Narro Robles and  Navarro Moctezuma, 2012). In particular, Oaxaca, Chiapas and Guerrero, some of the highest populated indigenous states, contain the highest levels of illiteracy (16.5, 16.1 and 15.7%, respectively), at least double the national average. By the same token, they also have the highest percentage of the population aged 15 and over without completing primary school (17.3, 19.1 and 14.6%), compared to a national average of 12.9% in 2010 (Narro Robles and Navarro Moctezuma, 2012). More broadly, more than 57% of indigenous people in the whole country are illiterate or have not finished primary school. Equally significant, even when indigenous children enter school, they on average stay in education less than their non-indigenous counterparts (Observatorio del Ciudadano de la Educación, 2008 and Narro Robles and Navarro Moctezuma, 2012). Thus, although Mexico is an independent state, the racial inequality reflected in its educational system demonstrate that the colonial scars remain.

In sum, it would be a fallacy to argue that colonisation in Mexico is just a historical period that has not left any obvious trace in contemporary relationships between white and indigenous people. Rather, educational policies under the directive of ‘Hispanicization’ have further entrenched the mark of racism which had left an indelible mark during Spanish colonial rule (Baronnet, 2013 and Baronnet and Velasco Cruz, 2016). Thus, although education was extended to indigenous communities during the establishment of the Mexican state, it was used as mere tool of domination, a hangover from the colonial discourses of the past (Torres, 2010).

The Mexican state as an agent of the problem

For the Mexican state, racism is expressed in the institutionalised absence of linguistically and culturally pertinent educational attention (Baronnet, 2013). Much of this has been fuelled by ineffective and inadequate educational reforms, which although claiming to improve educational outcomes for indigenous communities, have served to exacerbate them. In the 19th century, mandatory primary education for children from 7 to 15 was established (Monroy and Trines, 2019), and following the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) authorities put a special effort into advancing rural primary education, eradicating illiteracy, and working on the inclusion of indigenous peoples (Monroy and Trines, 2019 and Mier et al. 2003). Since 1979, there has been a particular emphasis on the intercultural character and linguistic development of an inclusive curriculum in primary schools (Tapia Uribe, 2003). In particular, in 1993 the General Education Law recognised the importance of promoting education in indigenous languages (Martinez Buenabad, 2011). Going further, a decade later in 2003, the article 11 of the General Law of Linguistic Rights of Indigenous Peoples was created. This is one of the most far-reaching pieces of Mexican social legislation to date, guaranteeing indigenous people the right to an education in their language both at primary and secondary level (Koster, 2019 and Observatorio del Ciudadano de la Educacion, 2008; Martines Buenabad, 2011).

However, the Mexican government’s policies have fallen far short of their original aims to promote bilingual education and facilitate then inclusion of indigenous culture in the curriculum (Velasco Cruz and Baronnet, 2016). At the core of this issue is the Mexican government’s selection of Spanish as the primary language in education, which has maintained high desertion rates and illiteracy within the indigenous population (Monroy and Trines, 2019). This issue has been further aggravated by the fact that bilingual education in indigenous communities eclipses after primary school, after which indigenous students are inducted into a monolingual secondary school system. Naturally, this which puts the indigenous community at a significant disadvantage compared to their native Spanish-speaking counterparts, since they are taught and assessed at the same level (Koster, 2019;  Observatorio del Ciudadano de la Educacion, 2008 and Martines Buenabad, 2011) despite not being afforded sufficient time to master the language (Mier, et al. 2003 and Observatorio Ciudadano de la Educación, 2008). Consequently, for the few indigenous pupils that do not drop out, should they reach secondary education they are subject to significantly poorer educational outcomes, effectively punished for being indigenous at the hands of an unequal educational system rooted in colonial heritage which seeks to nullify their cultural identity (Mier, et al. 2003 and Observatorio Ciudadano de la Educación, 2008).

Compounding these educational failures, indigenous populations have been left behind by a poorly allocated investment and resources (Mier, et al. 2003 and Observatorio Ciudadano de la Educación, 2008). In 2012, of an educational budget of 564.98 billion Mexican pesos (Koster, 2016), just 0.06% of the annual budget was allocated to the General Directorate of Indigenous Education. Put more starkly, this amounted to an investment of approximately 300 Mexican pesos per indigenous student, dwarfed by the 14,200 Mexican pesos per child in ‘conventional’ primary schools (Koster, 2016). Moreover, it is not just a lack of aggregate financial investment which has underserved indigenous populations, but where the funding is allocated. Geographically, urban areas have benefited from substantially more investment in education than rural areas, which have a higher proportion of indigenous children. This has been reflected in school attendance figures showing much higher rates of attendance in urban areas (Mier et al. 2003). The lack of funding for indigenous primary education unmasks the guiding logic of the Mexican educational system. Namely, that indigenous populations must necessarily adapt to the dominating culture, rather than them being offered the educational resources through which they can educate their children in a way that respects, and continues the legacy of, their cultural and linguistic heritage (Koster, 2016).

The result of these adverse educational policies have been profound, and can be most vividly exemplified in literacy figures. Among indigenous language speakers aged between 8 to 14, illiteracy stands at 13.5%, compared to only 2.4% for non-indigenous children of the same age group (Observatorio del Ciudadano de la educación, 2008 and Rivas and Sanchez, 2022). Currently, 28.2% of the population aged 5 years of age or older who speak an indigenous language do not know how to read and write, a problem amplified in the case of women who have a literacy rate 10% lower than men (CONAPRED, 2022). Illiteracy persists in social groups that are marginalised and do not have access to primary schools with intercultural and bilingual education to which all Mexicans should formally and supposedly have access (Narro Robles and Navarro Moctezuma, 2012).

Despite these issues, the reduction, much less the eradication, of these racial disparities in education does not seem to be a political priority of the Mexican government (Baronnet, 2013). Instead, the Mexican state continues to perpetuate the roots of these issues, providing lower accessibility and quality of education to specific broad sectors of the population (Baronnet, 2013), and supressing the cultural and linguistic identity of indigenous communities. In short, although being most in need of quality education from the state, indigenous students are the social group that suffer at the hands of discriminatory policy rooted in colonial discourses (Baronnet, 2013). In this way, education is the tool by which the Mexican state maintains racial inequities and the supremacy of non-indigenous populations.

What can be done?

While this paper has thus far illuminated the hangover from colonial ideas about race in the education system, there are proactive steps which can be taken to tackle this. Crucially, anti-colonial discourse should be a staple of the primary education curriculum as a means to counteract orientalist discourse which contributes towards the sustaining of racial inequality (Taylor, 2005). In practice, this means redefining colonial beliefs about what it means to be 'Indio' and both indigenous perceptions of themselves, and the way in which they are perceived by the white population (Narro Robles and Navarro Moctezuma, 2012).

Firstly, anti-colonial discourse can be facilitated through the de-centralisation of the education system and the empowerment of indigenous communities to control their own educational system (Taylor, 2005). Importantly, the current primary education curriculum is highly centralised by the state, acting as a barrier against its diversification to meet the requirements of equity and quality demanded by the various communities, localities, regions and states (Narro Robles, and Navarro Moctezuma, 2012). By empowering local indigenous communities to run their own educational affairs, indigenous children will be better positioned to receive an education in line with their cultural and linguistic heritage, aiding an enhanced understanding of self and greater multicultural tolerance (Taylor, 2005). Within these communities, parents and teachers must play a greater role in education through school councils like the Council for Social Participation and Parents Associations (Tapia Uribe, 2003), which act as forums for the improvement of education. Such associations democratise the process of curriculum formulation, foster a culture of co-responsibility and shift the focus of education to a socio-political perspective that highlights the relationship between culture, language and the idea of social justice (Tapia Uribe, 2003; Taylor, 2005; Giroux and Penna, 1979).

An additional strategy for systemic institutional change to address the current system of social oppression in Mexico (Torres, 2010) is to deal with discrimination and racism based on everyday experience (Aguilar Nery, 2012 and Torres, 2010). At its core, this involves educating the indigenous community to recognise the ongoing existence of colonial discourse in the education system and forging the connection with the racism they experience in daily life. Promoting indigenous knowledge not only in intercultural and bilingual primary schools, but also in urban areas and private schools would help to dismantle colonial discourses that see indigenous knowledge as backward, primitive and of lesser value (Torres, 2010). This harnesses the power of community and collective change since every educational stakeholder will be a participant in rooting out colonial discourses which continue to thrive in urban areas and private schools.

Concurrently, it is crucial to promote self-esteem in the curriculum of intercultural and bilingual schools. As Friedland (2005) argues, one of the reasons why students exhibit low achievement and motivation in schools is related with a lack of self-esteem. Put another way, there is a strong correlation between self-esteem and better academic outcomes, since it reduces the chances of dropping out of school and increases acceptance of different ideas such as social justice, cultures and languages (Friedland, 2005). One can have anti-colonial discourses in the curriculum, but unless indigenous children possess self-esteem they will be unequipped to wholly recognise their self-value and develop the emotional intelligence to deal with a society where racial inequalities are prevalent. Equally, self-esteem combined with anti-colonial discourse will pave the way for privileged white children to acknowledge their privilege (Torres, 2010). Indeed, by learning about the indigenous community, they will be able to better understand and respect the importance of social justice to promote equality (Torres, 2010).

Conclusion

At its core, this paper has outlined how the systemic marginalisation of indigenous communities carried out over 200 years of Spanish colonial rule continues to be fuelled to this day through the promotion of colonial discourses in the Mexican educational system. Backed by a robust foundation of empirical data throughout, it has demonstrated how the lower educational outcomes of indigenous children are correlated by the sustainment of colonial practices in education. Moreover, government policies designed to overcome to these issues in the name of inclusivity and racial equality, have instead served to aggravate the problem by suppressing indigenous languages and applying investment unequally to the detriment of impoverished rural indigenous communities.

Of course, this does not mean that the problem of continued colonial undertones in the Mexican education system is intractable. Rather, the prescriptive element of this paper has shown that there are constructive ways to rebuild the educational system in a way that provides indigenous Mexicans with the opportunities to build their own future and improve their well-being (Narro Robles and Navarro Moctezuma, 2012). Importantly, improving the educational system so that it eliminates racial inequities is the task of all Mexicans and all social institutions. As such, a collaborative, local approach is needed which involves communities, parents and teachers. The first step in this direction would be the de-centralisation of the education system combined with the empowerment of indigenous civil associations and movements. By equipping communities with the means to realign education with their linguistic and cultural preferences, they will be better placed to untangle the work of centuries of colonial suppression of their identities. This, of course, must be coupled by anti-colonial discourse becoming a central pillar of the national curriculum in mixed schools, which will facilitate greater multicultural tolerance and educate children with a de-colonised view of intercultural citizenship (Narro Robles and Navarro Moctezuma, 2012).

In the final analysis, the story of the Mexican education system is one that is plagued by the legacy of colonialism, deeply influenced by its orientalist ideas about ‘the other’. Although the Spanish have departed, the colonial discourse propagated during their dominance has trickled down into the Mexican education system where it has been used to induct successive generations into its discourses and narratives. As part of a broader policy of Hispanicization, education has operated as the means to undermine indigenous knowledge of self and identity, including language and culture, by forcibly seeking to assimilate them into the dominant culture. In this way, racial disparities in educational outcomes, manifested in measures such as literacy rates, can be traced back to colonial influence and the racism which accompanies it.

References

Aguilar Nery, J. (2012) ‘Diferencia racial en docentes de educación básica de Tijuana y Tecate Un estudio exploratorio’, Culturales, 8(15), pp.47-80. Available at: http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?pid=S1870-11912012000100003&script=sci_abstract&tlng=en (Accessed: 17 April 2022).

Apple, M.W. (1990) ' Curricular history and social control'. Ideology and curriculum. 2 ed. New York: Routledge, pp. 43-61.

Apple, M.W. (1990) 'The hidden curriculum and the nature of conflict '. Ideology and curriculum. 2 ed. New York: Routledge, pp. 61-82.

Ball, S.J. (1993) 'WHAT IS POLICY? TEXTS, TRAJECTORIES AND TOOLBOXES', Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education.13(2), pp. 10-17, DOI: 10.1080/0159630930130203

Baronnet, B. (2013) Racismo y discriminaciones en el Sistema educativo mexicano Franco, G. A. ed. (2013). Teoría y práctica de la educación intercultural en Chiapas. Mexico City: Programa de Investigaciones Multidisciplinarias sobre Mesoamérica y el Sureste, Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas.

Baronnet, B. and Velasco Cruz, S. (2016) ‘ Racismo y la escuela en Mexico:Reconociendo la tragedia para intentar la salida’, ''Dialogos sobre la educacion: Temas actuales en la investigacion educativa, 7(13), pp. 1-18. Available at:'' https://www.redalyc.org/jatsRepo/5534/553458105019/553458105019.pdf (Accesed: 15 March 2022).

CONAPRED (2022) Discriminacion en contra de la población indigena de Mexico. Mexico city: Secretaria de Gobernacion. Available at: https://www.conapred.org.mx/index.php?contenido=noticias&id=798&id_opcion=&op=448#_ftn1 (Accessed: 18 April 2022).

Friedland, S. (1992) ‘Building Student Self-Esteem For School Improvement’, NASSP Bulletin, 76(540), pp. 96–102. doi: 10.1177/019263659207654016.

Giroux, H.A &  Penna, A.N. (1979) 'Social Education in the Classroom: The Dynamics of the Hidden Curriculum'. Theory & Research in Social Education. 7(1), pp. 21-42, DOI: 10.1080/00933104.1979.10506048 (Accessed: 14 March 2022).

Hamel, R. E. (2008). Bilingual education for indigenous communities in Mexico. Encyclopedia of language and education, (5),pp. 311-322. Available at: https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/34425932/2008b_Bilingual_Education_for_Indigenous_Communities-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1652785704&Signature=S2jJdjyvnYRR7CgOREF6Un2TmBj0ZztA9vEfNaP8YXCWCLq6R7Lm1ocFBR639exm4ztUqQw4-IuN1vdV-k4PkQgnzWb~S8V2-gjIzNKZ8AqIrpG7TTe3IhOtVmGFRCXXQsJaTkz25rXBYmxEIbpgsnqieP8DqAtQKonRZEzkL~ElDeZ2G4yRtjUgeWZc2~mkMuRQR0XIde6QVUNCVsSb0DpKqWfjB2qK3IchuNNHnGZ-dcQ8uWzoJMK4I99fclzSJQdgZZNd2xnlQ20zruvV7UH~shfippaAYV67mLysJbL-F3Hp0IUsnEJ7od3t0NhBaG7xyzKn9ikECwjD77142g__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA (Accessed: 19 March 2022).

Köster, A. (2016). Educación asequible, accesible, aceptable y adaptable para los pueblos indígenas en México: Una revisión estadística. Alteridad, 11(1), pp. 33-52. Available at: https://revistas.ups.edu.ec/index.php/alteridad/article/view/1.2016.03 (Accessed: 19 April 2022).

Lopez Caballero, P. (2008). ‘Which heritage for which heirs? The pre‐Columbian past and the colonial legacy in the national history of Mexico’, Social Anthropology, 16(3), pp. 329-345. Available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/j.1469-8676.2008.00047.x?saml_referrer (Accessed: 19 April 2022).

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