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Discrimination against men is a negative attitude (including any behavior or action) based on gender or sex, leading to an unfavorable position of men. Men are discriminated against both individually and as a social group. The extent of discrimination against men in the modern world is the subject of debate in the scientific community.

Gender researchers from McGill University, Paul Nathanson and Katherine K. Young, note that by now discrimination against men is so widely institutionalized that it is best described as systemic and characteristic of the legal system as a whole. Sociologist Pasi Malmi, summarizing research on the theory of roles and men's studies, characterizes discrimination against men as mainly structural discrimination, which is caused by the sexist gender system of industrial societies that does not allow men to achieve real gender equality with women. In the case of structural discrimination, members of the discriminated group are disadvantaged due to structural factors such as gender roles, social norms, power structures, language, aggregate choices and actions of members of society. In case of structural discrimination, there is no clearly identifiable subject of discrimination, instead, a certain collective entity — society, market, mass media - usually acts as such.

At the same time, social justice researchers Camden Strunk and Leslie Locke argue that cisgender men may experience gender discrimination, but it is not sexism due to its non-systemic nature (unlike transgender men who experience sexism). Sociologist Øystein Gullvåg Holter characterizes the position of men in the gender hierarchy rather as mixed, but not as purely dominant. As sociologist Fred Pincus points out, men may face intentional discrimination, although women are in a less favorable position than men; Pincus also believes that such cases of discrimination against men have nothing to do with positive discrimination. Psychologist Francesca Manzi notes that since men, unlike women, are not a typical object of discrimination, discrimination against men is more difficult to detect; moreover, estimates of the scale of the phenomenon may depend on discrepancies in the definition of the term "discrimination". According to her, the non-recognition of a number of unfavorable situations by discrimination may be influenced by traditional gender attitudes, which prohibit men from traditionally feminine behavior.

Conscription
Military registration only for men in the United States is one of the examples that gender researcher Warren Farrell uses to illustrate male disenfranchisement. He writes that if any other group (the examples he lists are Jews, African Americans and women) were chosen based on their characteristics at birth to become the only group for which registration for potential death would be required, then society would call it anti-Semitism, racism or sexism. Men, according to him, absorb in the course of socialization ideas about military duty for men as a path to "glory" and "power", and as a result do not consider it as discrimination.

In 1981, the U.S. Supreme Court in the Rostker v. Goldberg case recognized the constitutional practice of military registration of only the male part of the country's population, arguing that women could not serve in positions related to direct participation in hostilities. However, in 2015, the Pentagon lifted all restrictions on military service for women. In this regard, National Coalition For Men filed a lawsuit on the unconstitutionality of military registration aimed only at men, considering this practice discriminatory: men who do not register in Selective Service System at the age of 18 may be denied state benefits, such as employment in federal organizations and student loans. As a result, on February 22, 2019, a federal court in Texas agreed with human rights defenders, recognizing the current system of military registration in the United States unconstitutional. However, this decision was overturned by the 5th Circuit Court of Appeals. Then a petition for review was filed with the U.S. Supreme Court. In June 2021, the US Supreme Court refused to review the decision of the Court of Appeals.

In Soviet society, universal male military duty played a significant role in the construction of masculinity: Soviet ideas about militarized masculinity were based on the ideas of civic duty, heroism and patriotism, and Soviet gender ideology defined military service as the most important instance of turning a boy into a man. In post—Soviet Russia, the link between masculinity and militarization, established by the institute of conscription, has undergone significant changes - largely for political and economic reasons. Unlike the Soviet one, the post-Soviet Russian state no longer provides men with the former social guarantees as a reward for militarization, and the state's rupture of the former social contract leads to the reluctance of young men to go to military service. In addition, with the collapse of the Soviet state, militarized masculinity came into conflict with the new capitalist masculinity: many young men believe that military service is incompatible with a dynamic market economy and competition in the labor market. Scientists also state a significant gap between the state ideology of militarized patriotism and the sentiments of the Russian population, a significant part of which is skeptical about post-Soviet military conflicts and does not regard them as fair.

During the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the Ukrainian authorities, in order to mobilize men, banned men aged 18 to 60 from leaving the country before the end of hostilities, which is discrimination against men on the basis of gender and violation of human rights. Partial mobilization in Russia is no less discriminatory for men, since it forces them to risk their lives and health and kill other people regardless of their views; at the same time, men who fled mobilization in Russia are not even recognized by other countries as refugees.

Male mortality
The life expectancy of women in almost all countries exceeds the life expectancy of men (the difference in the life expectancy of men and women is especially significant in Eastern European states). Even in Japan, where the average life expectancy is one of the highest in the world, the gap between men and women was more than 7 years in favor of women.

Military and criminal violence, suicides and industrial accidents are factors that contribute to the reduction of men's life expectancy. The frequency of fatal cases of violence against men and the greater tolerance for violence against men largely explain why men, as a rule, live much less than women. In almost all countries of the world, men are also more likely than women to commit suicide. In the West and in Western Asian countries, the suicide rate among men is at least twice as high as among women, and sometimes the gap is even greater. Men also make up the majority of victims of fatal industrial accidents. In the United States, the death rate at work among men is about ten times higher than among women. Although women account for 43% of the hours worked for wages in the United States, they account for only 7% of accidents at work. The situation is worse in Canada, where men account for about 95% of workplace fatalities. In this country, the number of workplace deaths among men is about 10.4 per 100,000, while the corresponding figure among women is 0.4 per 100,000. In Taiwan, men account for about 93% of workplace fatalities.

Paternity and custody of children
In a divorce, men are much less likely to get custody of their children than women. In the United States, fathers receive sole custody of children in about 10% of cases, and women in almost three-quarters of cases (in the case of child custody disputes, mothers' petitions are granted twice as often as fathers' petitions). In New Zealand, fathers receive custody of children in about 11% of cases settled in family court, while mothers receive custody in about 65% of cases. In Canada, women receive sole custody in more than 70% of cases. At the same time, in Canada, just over 93% of women applying for sole custody received this permission; at the same time, only two-fifths of men who applied for custody of children were able to obtain it. It is more difficult for gay men to adopt children than for lesbians, even in countries where same-sex couples are allowed to adopt children.

At the same time, as scientists note, one of the reasons why courts often deny fathers preferential custody rights over children is the insufficient involvement of fathers in the care and care of children before divorce. According to research, on average, in families with two parents, fathers spend four times less time on direct communication with children than mothers.

However, other studies say that divorced men feel much worse emotionally than divorced women. For example, they are more likely than women to end up in psychiatric hospitals after a divorce. While divorced women are no more likely to commit suicide than married women, divorced men are twice as likely as married men to commit suicide. This is largely due to the fact that after a divorce, fathers lose close daily contact with their children. Women also report greater satisfaction with the terms of the divorce and a greater sense of control over the divorce process than men.

Discrimination against men in criminal and penal enforcement law
An analysis of the criminal practice of various countries revealed the existence of discrimination against men in criminal and penal enforcement law. In an extensive study of criminal practice in New Zealand, it was revealed that male criminals are more likely than female criminals to receive real sentences instead of suspended ones, and it was proved that it is the gender of the defendants that influences sentencing, including taking into account other factors such as criminal record. Judges tend to explain the criminal actions of women by social factors, to find mitigating circumstances in them. UK courts systematically impose lower penalties on women for theft, explaining their concern for their children. This argument is used even when mitigating the punishment of childless women. A similar situation in the United States was recognized by the Ministry of Justice. In Finland, according to the database of the state research institute Optula, men receive longer sentences for similar crimes than women and are less likely to be sentenced to probation.

Discrimination in employment
Studies have shown that people have a more negative attitude to discrimination against women when hiring than to discrimination against men. In the United States, both supporters of the Republican Party and, to an even greater extent, supporters of the Democratic Party expressed a more negative attitude towards managers who discriminate against women when hiring than towards managers who discriminate against men. It was also revealed that people are more concerned about the shortage of women in those professional niches dominated by men (mathematics, engineering, technology, science) than the shortage of men in fields dominated by women (healthcare, preschool education, household). Men are often sanctioned in the form of condemnation and ridicule for their interest in traditionally "female" professions (for example, a nurse or kindergarten teacher). As the psychologist Francesca Manzi points out, in such cases, discrimination against men is often not recognized as such, which may be due to traditional gender attitudes that prohibit men from traditionally feminine behavior.

Discrimination against homosexual and transgender men
Homosexual men are more victimized than lesbians. In particular, homosexual sex of men has been and continues to be criminalized or otherwise prosecuted in more jurisdictions than lesbian sex, and there are no countries that would criminalize only same-sex sex of women. Gays are much more likely than lesbians to become victims of hate crimes. For example, the FBI's hate crime statistics show that in 2008 58.6% of crimes based on sexual orientation were motivated by bias against gays, while only 12% were motivated by bias against lesbians. Gay men face greater difficulties in adopting children than lesbians, even in countries where same-sex couples are allowed to adopt children.

As gender researcher M. Holleb points out, transgender men face a specific kind of discrimination based on the position that trans men are actually women. This discrimination includes the invisibility of trans men in society. Researcher E. K. Krell writes about the existence of a racialized transmisandry faced by dark-skinned transgender men living in an atmosphere of strict control over black masculinity.

Violence against men
Men are more likely to be victims of physical violence than women. In the USA, crime statistics since 1976 show that men make up the majority (74.9%) of victims in murders involving both male and female criminals. However, due to gender bias, men's safety worries people less than women's safety. Discrimination also leads to the fact that men who are victims of violence do not show empathy.

Bias against men
Due to the attribution error of the gender group, the negative behavior shown by representatives of both sexes is perceived as characteristic and typical only for men. People tend to attribute negative intra-group female behavior to environmental variables, while negative extra-group male behavior is attributed solely to personal characteristics.

Psychologist Aman Siddiqi, applying an intersectional approach, notes that men do not face bias to the same extent: for example, the manifestation of gender stereotypes, such as the perception of men as dangerous and aggressive, will vary depending on race.

Male circumcision
Gender researcher David Benatar notes that although male circumcision in itself is not discrimination, there are still several significant aspects of circumcision that can be characterized as discriminatory — among them he refers to the lack of anesthesia when circumcising boys. He also writes about the contrast when Western society ignores the painful circumcision of boys with the removal of the entire foreskin and at the same time extremely negatively perceives minimally invasive forms of manipulation with the genitals of teenage girls (for example, a symbolic incision of the clitoris without removing any vulva tissues in Somali girls in the USA, which served as an alternative to traditional circumcision).

Literature


/Category:Sexism /Category:Misandry /Category:Masculism