User:2p4e/sandbox

FR 06/06/20
 * Dry powder = Slang for cash reserved for periods of economic stress
 * The phrase is from the 17th century, when wars were fought with guns, cannons, and other gunpowder-based weapons. This had to be stored dry to maintain its efficacy
 * Dominican American drug dealer nicknamed Yayo. He was the first mass marketer of crack cocaine in the US and possibly helped 'yayo' gain popularity as slang for cocaine
 * He built his empire in NY but escaped to the Dominican Republic where he now lives as a casino owner
 * Panthera spelaea = Eurasian cave lion. Extinct lion that used to live in the colder climates of Europe. As such, lions have featured in Judeo-Christian, Roman and wider European imagery for many years - e.g. the Löwenmensch figurine or Lion-man of the Hohlenstein-Stadel

MON 08/06/20 them and they're far from one's own vulnerabilities (e.g. US in Iraq)
 * Kettling = Police tactic of controllinf protesters by boxing them in and leaving a small exit for them to leave slowly
 * Fog of war = The uncertainty prevalent during war
 * OODA loop = John Boyd's military technique to 'observe–orient–decide–act'
 * The OODA loop explains how agility can overcome raw power in dealing with humans. It is especially applicable to cyber security / cyberwarfare
 * Nursing process = ADOPIRE -> Assess (what data is collected?), Diagnose (what is the problem?), Outcome Identification (what is the end goal?), Plan (how to manage the problem), Implement (putting plan into action), Rationale (Scientific reason of the implementations), Evaluate (did the plan work?)
 * Flypaper theory (strategy) = Military theory of drawing enemies to a single area, where it's easier to kill
 * Lamellar armour = Body armour made of small square plates ('lames') - used by many armies of the past including Assyrians and Japanese
 * Approx 70% of people have a stronger right eye (Ocular dominance). As most people are also right-handed, it is generally considered safer to drive on the left (these countries have slightly fewer accident rates)

FR 12/03/21
 * The Frankfurt School combined Marxist Analysis with Freudian psychoanalysis to form Critical theory
 * Major theorists included Herbert Marcuse (1898 - 1979) and Theodor W. Adorno (1903 - 1969)
 * Rampokan = Javanese tradition of animal fighting

FR 26/03/21
 * | The Rape of Nanking by Iris Chang
 * Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori ("It is sweet and fitting to die for the homeland.") = a Line from Horace that sums up the attitude of Japanese youth
 * Japanese Emperors are said to be direct descendants of the Sun-goddess Amaterasu
 * Japanese pilots flying directly into American ships, showed they were to sacrifice everything for the emperor. The Allied forces surrendered at the rate of 1 prisoner per 3 dead, but the Japanese surrendered at the rate of 1 per 120 dead
 * In the late 15th / early 16th centuries, the Tokugawa shogunate ruled and sealed Japan off from foreign influence
 * Sakoku = Isolation policy that lasted over 200 years (1633s - 1853s)
 * In 1852, a frustrated Millard Fillmore tasked Matthew C. Perry to stop isolation
 * Perry Expedition (Arrival of the Black ships) = 1853-54 flotilla of ships belching black smoke sent to Tokyo Bayto show off steam power and intimidate the Japanese to demand high-level meetings
 * The government starting sending the most gifted students to study science and technology at Western universities, created their own factories for military production, and replaced the locally controlled feudal armies with a national conscript army
 * Japan grew stronger and stronger, winning the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-95) to make China sign the Treaty of Shimonoseki, which required them to pay the Japanese and give them Taiwan and several ports
 * In the 1905 Russo-Japanese War, they were surprisingly able to beat Russia
 * The 1920s crippled their economy and ended Japan’s golden era of prosperity. The end of WW1 reduced demand for military products and led to mass factory closure. The Wall Street Crash of 1929 / depression badly hurt the Japanese silk export trade and more investment went toward China. As such, Japan started to think they needed more colonies
 * Writer Okawa Shumei predicted a West / East clash - "The strongest country in Asia is Japan and the strongest country that represents Europe is America.... These two countries are destined to fight. Only God knows when it will be"
 * Ultranationalists wanted to move fast (before China got too strong) so organised a 1932 coup and assassinated Inukai Tsuyoshi in the May 15 Incident. His last words - "If I could speak, you would understand", killers replied - "Dialogue is useless"
 * League of Blood Incident = A plot a couple of months prior killing some politicians and wealthy businessmen
 * The warlord of Manchuria, Zhang Zuolin, was killed by the Kwantung Army in 1928. Japan seized the place and renamed the puppet state as Manchukuo, installing Pu Yi
 * Japan bombed Shanghai, killing thousands in the 1932 Battle of Shanghai, then withdrawing from the League of Nations a year later after being condemned for the act
 * Japan began changing the attitudes of the youth in preparation for a war with China. Toy shops sold helmets and tanks, school lectures talked about Japan's 'divine destiny' to rule Asia and children became familiar with guns
 * When a squeamish 1930s schoolboy cried whilst dissecting a frog, his teacher punched him and said “Why are you crying about one lousy frog? When you grow up you’ll have to kill one hundred, two hundred chinks!”
 * In 1890, the Imperial Rescript on Education was introduced as a 3 paragraph document read aloud memorized by all students
 * Students were beaten / 'toughened up' and forced to hold heavy objects, sit on their knees for long periods, walk barefoot in snow and run until they collapsed
 * The military were drilled in similar ways, with training intensity far surpassing Western academies
 * in England, an officer completed 1372 hours of classwork and 245 hours of private study. For Japan, this was 3382 hours and 2765 hours respectively. Every subject focused on perfection and triumph (including history based on Japanese supermacist propoganda, mathematics and penmanship) whilst also making them adopt “a will which knows no defeat”
 * Terrified by failure, exam results were kept secret by their teachers to minimize suicides
 * The Second Sino-Japanese War was provoked following the Marco Polo Bridge Incident (Japan made a fuss about a 'missing solider') in 1937
 * Japan believed they could conquer mainland China within three months but were outnumbered 10-1 in Shanghai as the primitive and poorly trained people fought bravely against the superior Japanese. They also killed several hundred, including a cousin of Empress Nagako as the battle dragged on for 5 months
 * After finally winning in Shanghai, Japan marched towards the capital (Nanjing) and wanted revenge for not being able to win instantly

WE 02/11/22
 * There are 7641 Philippine islands

 Facts 

SU 25/06/17
 * Quaker Oats' UK factory is in Cupar, Fife. The oats originated in Akron, Ohio (at Quaker Square)
 * The logo depicts William Penn, the quaker who Pennsylvania is named after
 * Dionne quintuplets (b. 1934) = First quintuplets known to survive to adulthood. From Ontario, they were used in Quaker Oats ads
 * Guerilla gardening = Gardening on land which you do not have the legal rights to cultivate, such as abandoned sites, private property etc.
 * Djellaba = Long loose-fitting unisex robe worn in the Maghreb region of N. Africa
 * Maghreb = Meaning 'sunset' / 'West' - refers to the countries of Nortwest Africa -- Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Libya, Mauritania
 * The Moors = The Muslim inhabitants of the Maghreb, North Africa, the Iberian peninsula, Sicily and Malta during the Middle Ages
 * Iberian Peninsula = The Southwest corner of Europe. It is mainly Spain and Portugal but also includes Andorra, Gibraltar and some of France (Pyrenees boundary)
 * The longest rivers in the Iberian peninsula are Tagus (626mi) and Ebro (578mi). Ebro in Greek was called Iber (Roman; Hiber). This is where the Iberian peninsula gets its name
 * Madrid (3 million) has the largest population in the peninsula, followed by Barcelona (1.6 million)
 * It's the 2nd largest European peninsula - after the Scandinavia
 * Scandinavia = Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Sometimes, the Faroe Islands (Danish overseas territory), Iceland, Finland and the Aland Islands (autonomous Finnish region) are included
 * The Scandinavian Peninsula is the largest in Europe - comprising of Sweden, Norway, North-West Finland and a small part of Russia
 * Arabian Peninsula = Largest in world (1.2 million square miles). It consists of Yemen, Oman, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, the UAE and parts of Jordan and Iraq
 * The Middle Ages / The Medieval Period = The 5th - 15th century period in the history of Europe
 * The Middle Ages started with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance and Age of Discovery. The period is further divided into the Early (6th - 10th century) Middle Ages
 * Early Middle Ages = The decline of the Western Roman Empire. This period featured a decline in the population and trade as immigration increased. Labelled the dark ages due to the lack of literacy and cultural output from the time
 * Saeculum obscurus = Latin for 'The Dark Age'
 * Islam came to prominence in the 7th century
 * High Middle Ages = Rapidly increasing population of Europe, the first developments of rural exodus / urbanization and the 12th century renaissance
 * The first universities were founded in Bologna, Paris, Oxford and Modena. Vikings had settled in the British Isles, France etc. whilst Norse Christian kingdoms were developing their Scandinavian homelands
 * This age saw a rise in ethnocentrism (judging other cultures solely by the values / standards of one's own culture), which later evolved into modern civic nationalism (non-xenophobic pride)
 * Al-Andalus / Muslim Spain / Islamic Iberia was ruled by Muslims 711 - 1492. This is modern day Andalusia
 * Technology majorly progressed in the High Middle Ages with the invention of windmills, watermills, printing, gunpowder, the astrolabe, glasses, modern shaped scissors, better clocks and ships
 * The earliest written record of a windmill is from Yorkshire (1185)
 * Eye glasses were invented in Italy in the 1280s
 * Fibonacci popularised Arabic numerals in Europe through his book, Liber Abaci (1202)
 * Benjamin Franklin would invent bifocals in the 1700s
 * The Late Middle Ages = Propensity / growth in Europe came to a halt (~1300). Famines and plagues including the Great Famine of 1315 - 1317 and the Black Death cut the population in half.
 * Endemic warfare (continuous warfare) started
 * France and England experiences peasant uprisings such as the Jacquerie and Peasant's Revolt and over a century of conflict (Hundred years' war)
 * The Western Schism = A split within the Catholic Church from 1378 - 1417 where 3 men simultaneously claimed to be the true pope
 * Collectively, these events are often referred to as the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages. However, there was great progress in the 14th century in arts and sciences - driven by the Italian Renaissance
 * Towards the end of the period, the Age of Discovery began. The fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the rise of the Ottoman Empire eroded the last remnants of the Byzantine Empire cutting off trading with the East - leading to expeditions to find new trade routes
 * Christopher Colombus led the expedition to the Americas in 1492 and Vasco da Gama circumnavigated India and Africa in 1498
 * Circumnavigate = Travel all the way around something

SA 01/07/17
 * Epigraphy = The study / interpretation of ancient inscriptions. It’s the science of identifying graphemes
 * Grapheme = The smallest unit of a writing system - e.g. letters, digits, punctuation marks, symbols etc.
 * Pince-nez = 19th century style of glasses.
 * From the French for 'pincer' (pinch) + 'nez' (nose}. They had no earpieces but were supported by pinching the bridge of the nose
 * Lorgnette = Spectacles with a handle - they were popularized and maybe invented by George Adams and inspired modern opera glasses. From the French 'lorgne' (squinting)
 * Opera glasses / theatre binoculars / Galilean binoculars = Usually x3 magnification - they have mainly been produced by the London Opera Glass Company (founded in 1913)
 * Scissors-glasses = The 2-lensed version of a monacle / quizzing glass. In a Y-shape, they usually had a ring on the end to be worn on a ribbon or gold chain around the neck
 * Binocles-ciseaux = French term for scissor glasses - worn by Washington, Lafayette and Napoleon
 * Magyars = Alternative word for Hungarians
 * Jeanne Calment = French woman (b. 1875) - oldest person ever (d. 1997 at 122y, 164d). From Arles, France
 * Supercentenarian = Person who is 110 or more
 * Pogonophile = One who loves / studies beards
 * Michael Bond = British author who wrote the Paddington Bear series. Died 27/06/17, aged 91
 * Joseph Conrad = Polish-British writer who wrote Heart of Darkness in 1899. He didn't read reviews, he measured them.
 * Charles M. Schulz = American cartoonist of Peanuts
 * Calvin and Hobbes = Daily American comic strip by Bill Watterson, since 1985. It follows the adventures of a 6-year old bot (Calvin) and his sardonic stuffed tiger (Hobbes)
 * Kintsugi = Japanese art of repairing broken pottery to highlight - rather than hide - the breakages using gold / silver / platinum etc. It means 'golden joinery'
 * Boops boops = A species of fish native to the Eastern Atlantic. AKA The Bogue. Boops in Greek is 'Cow-eye'
 * "Boops boops boops Boops boops" makes sense
 * The sentence Buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo is grammatically correct. It uses different definition: a) The city of Buffalo, NY is used as a noun adjunct. b) The noun buffalo (American bison) describes the animal c) The verb buffalo means to outwite, confuse, deceive, intimidate or baffle.
 * The sentence uses a restrictive clause meaning there is no grammar not the use of 'which', which could have been added between the 2nd and 3rd
 * Buffalo buffalo (the animals from Buffalo, NY) [that] Buffalo buffalo buffalo (other Buffalo, NY buffalo intimidate) buffalo Buffalo buffalo (are intimidating other Buffalo, NY buffalo).
 * Bufo Bufo = Latin term for the common toad
 * (DEF) Spuddling = Attending to trivial matters as if they were of the greatest importance
 * (DEF) Apricate = To bask in the sun - i.e. 'cats like to apricate'
 * (DEF) Gravedent = Having a rank, fetid smell
 * (DEF) Tarradiddle = Pretentious nonsense
 * Anthropornis = Genus of giant penguin (6ft) that lived 45 - 33 million years ago
 * Recent studies have found when we read / hear a word meaning luminosity ('sun', 'shine' etc.) our pupils contract as they would if exposed to greater brightness and do the opposite (dilate) with words associated with darkness ('night', 'gloom')
 * Bertold Wiesner (1901 - 1972) = Austrian Jew psychologist who biologically fathered ~ 600 offspring by anonymously donating sperm at a fertility clinic he ran. His wife was Mary Barton

SU 02/07/17
 * Trisomy 21 = Down Syndrome. It occurs in around 1/1000 babies born per year. First identified by British doctor John Langdon Down in 1866.
 * Trisomy 18 = Edwards Syndrome. Babies are born with small bodies and have heart defects. Other features include a small head, small jaw, clenched fists with overlapping fingers and severe intellectual disability. Named after John Hilton Edwards who first described the condition in 1960
 * Trisomy 13 = Patau Syndrome - affects ~1/15000 births. More than 80% of children with it die witin the first year. Named after Klaus Patau (German-American geneticist who described it in 1960. The disease have been known of since 1657 (observed by Thomas Bartholin)
 * Trisomy 22 = Emmanuel Syndrome. They have microcephaly (small head), micrognathia (small jaw), FTT (failure to thrive - i.e growing / gaining weight slowly) and hypotonia (weak muscle tone, floppy baby syndrome). Also profound mental retardation.
 * Characterized in 1980 by Dr. Beverly Emanuel
 * Faults in chromosome 22 can also lead to CES (Cat eye syndrome) AKA Schmid-Faccaro syndrome
 * It is called CES due to the appearance of vertical colobomas in the eyes of some (> 50%) patients.
 * Coloboma = A hole in a part of the eye, such as the iris, retina, choroid or optic disc. From the Greek 'koloboma' ('defect'). It is always present from birth.
 * When Madeline McCann went missing in Praia da Luz on 3 May 2007 (~ 1 week before her 4th birthday), posters / online campaigns used 'Look' with a coloboma radius extending from the pupil at the 7 o'clock position.
 * Michael Carroll = UK National Lottery winner in 2002. He won £9.7 mil aged 19, was a former bin man and was touted the 'Lotto Lout' and 'King of Chavs'. When he was 18 mths, his father was jailed for 11 years for stabbing a couple after a fight
 * Carroll wasted his winnings on houses, drugs, drink etc. and in 2010 went back to being a bin man
 * Evelyn Adams = 2-time winner (1985 & 1986) of the New Jersey Lottery, winning $5.4 mil. She was a compulsive gambler and lost all her money. By [2001], Adams was living in a trailer
 * Amniotes = Animals which lay their eggs on land - e.g. reptiles, birds and some mammals (monotremes)
 * Anamniotes = Animals which lay their eggs in water - e.g. fishes and amphibians
 * Fishes = The plural used when talking about different species. Fish = The plural used when talking about the same species.
 * Archosaurs = Group of diapsid amniotes now consisting of birds and crocodilians under the respective clades of Ornithosuchia and Pseudosuchia. The group also includes all non-avian dinosaurs and pterosaurs
 * Flapper = Young Western women in the Roaring 20s who were seen as brash, wearing excessive make-up, short skirts / bobbed hair, jazz listeners and big spenders. And example of this could be Daisy Buchanan (The Great Gatsby)
 * In North Korea, all teachers needed to know the accordian back in the 1990s (part of their teachers test)
 * (DEF) inculcate = Instil - i.e. an idea into someone
 * (DEF) Axiomatic = Self-evident / unquestionable
 * (DEF) Anaranjado = Orange (Spanish)
 * (DEF) Fillip = Flicking using a finger + thumb
 * (DEF) Gorringe = Surname, probably deriving from Goring-by-Sea, Sussex.
 * (DEF) Blorenge = Hill in Monmouthshire (South Wales).
 * (DEF) Sporange = A case / capsule / container in which spores are produced by an organism (known a a sporangium).
 * Other half rhymes for orange include 'hinge', 'lozenge', 'syringe', 'Stonehenge', 'porridge', 'door-hinge', 'torn hinge', 'or inch', 'a wrench'
 * (DEF) Shivelight = The small slivers of light running through trees
 * (DEF) Smell-feast = One who tries to get invited to events where they can eat well - e.g. Terence Jolley
 * (DEF) Cockalorum = A self-important man
 * (DEF) Throttlebottom = A harmless incompetent in public office
 * (DEF) Lucifugous = Shunning the light - e.g. 'a lucifigous creature of the darkness'
 * (DEF) Languorous = Wanting to lie around doing nothing
 * (DEF) Punctilious = Showing great attention to detail or correct behaviour. A synonym is 'sedulous'
 * In 2009, Newcastle University found that cows with names produce ~ 500 pints more per year than unnamed ones
 * (DEF) Fremdschämen = Vicarious embarrassement
 * In 1987, American Airlines saved $40,000 by removing an olive from each first-class salad
 * Before it merged with Delta in 2008, Northwest Airlines used to cut up its limes into 16 pieced (compared to Delta's 10), saving $500,000. Delta now saves money on this by loading fewer limes per flight
 * Nomophobia = Proposed name for the phobia of being out of cellular phone contact. It was coined in the UK in 2008 - 'no-mobile-phone-phobia'
 * De Quervain Syndrome = A tenosynovitis (inflammation of the fluid-filled sheath called the 'synovium', surrounding the tendon) of the thumb / thumb movement
 * Named ater Swiss physician Fritz de Quervain who first identified it in 1895. AKA BlackBerry thumb, texting thumb, washerwoman's sprain, mommy thumb etc.
 * It's checked by Finkelstein's Test (where the doctor pinches the thumb) or by Eichhoff's test where the patient tucks their thumb inside the other four fingers and clenches their fist. Sharp pain from these tests could indicate DQS. Finklestein's is considered more reliable.
 * Nintendo thumb / gamer's grip = Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI) from video gaming. Swelling is usually caused on the thumb (prolonged D-pad use) but any finger can be affected.
 * Subungual hematoma = Jogger's toe; blood collecting under a finger-/toenail. AKA Runner's toe
 * Metatarsophalangeal joint sprain = Injury to the connective tissue between the foot and one of the toes. Known as turf toe when involving the big toe.
 * Playing Cards Act = Thailand law which prohibits individuals from more than 120 non-officially registered playing cards. Due to gambling control.
 * In Guatemala, tombstones are often painted colourfully as possible to honour the departed
 * (DEF) Gelotophilia = The joy of being laughed at
 * The world's shortest international bridge connects Spain and Portugal -> 3.2m (10.4ft) long.
 * (DEF) Lalochezia = Releasing stress / emotions by swearing
 * (DEF) Euneirophrenia = The good state of mind after sleeping / having a nice dream
 * (DEF) Malneirophrenia = Foul mood resulting from a bad night's sleep or nightmare
 * (DEF) Matutolypea = Extreme grumpiness first thing in the morning (literally 'grief of the dawn')
 * We get the word 'panic' from the mischievous God Pan - who wandered remote mountains / forests making eerie noises which terrified passers-by
 * (DEF) Malaphor = When idioms combine - e.g. 'we'll burn that bridge when we get to it', 'that train has sailed'
 * Pseudofolliculitis barbae = PFB / barber's itch / razor bumps is a medical term for persistent shaving irritation
 * If a Belgian family has 7 sons or daughters in succession, the Belgian King / Queen of Belgium|Belgian Queen becomes Godfather / Godmother and the child receives royal gifts

SA 08/07/17


 * Melon heads = Legendary beings / urban legends reportedly seen in parts of Michigan, Ohio and Connecticut (small humanoids with bulbous heads)
 * Hydrocephalus = A condition where there's a build up of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) within the brain. This can cause increased pressure in the skull (intracranial pressure)
 * In babies, hydropcephalus may lead to a rapid increase in head size. Other symptoms may include comitting, sleepiness, sizures and downward-pointing eyes
 * It affects around 1/20,000 people
 * Calvaria = The skullcap / top part of the skull
 * It is made up of the superior portions of the frontal bone, occipital bone and parietal bones
 * Calvary = The hill near Jerusalem on which Jesus was crucified. Latin for 'Place of the Skull' AKA Golgotha
 * Fontanelle = Anatomical feature of the infant human skull comprising any of the soft membranous sutures between the cranial bones in an infant / foetus
 * Suture = The joins between skull bones - held together by fibrous tissue (Sharpey's fibres)
 * Craniosynostosis = The fusion of the skull's bones at birth
 * Bregma = Greek for top of the head
 * Hydrocephalus can also include downward-turned eyes (sunset eyes) and a reduction of vision
 * Hydrocephalus can be treated by placing a drainage tube (shunt) between the brain ventricles and abnormal cavity. This needs to be regularly changed to avoid infection
 * And EVD (external ventricular drain) is often used in the short-term
 * Parinaud's Syndrome = The inability to move the eyes up and down. AKA Vertical gaze palsy / Sunset sign. Named after French ophthalmologist Henri Parinaud
 * Flashbulb Memory = Highly detailed 'snapshot' of a moment / circumstances where a memorable event was heard
 * Robert Van Winkle = Vanilla Ice's real name
 * There are 2 main types of long-term memory: explicit / declarative (conscious) and implicit / procedural (unconscious)
 * Explicit memories are split into episodic memory (autobiographical / personal) and semantic memory (general knowledge & facts)
 * The Reminiscence Bump = The tendency for older adults to have increased recollection for events which occurred during their adolescence / early adulthood.
 * From birth to c. 5 years old, there is a period of childhood amnesia. The peak (bump) happens from 10 - 30 years.
 * Serial-position effect = The tendancy of a person to recall the first & last items in a series the best and the ones in the middle were hardest to recall. The term was coined by Hermann Ebbinghaus - the first items are recalled due to the 'primacy' effect and the latter due to the 'recency' effect.
 * Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850 - 1909) = Pioneering German psychologist who studied memory. Known for the 'forgetting curve' & the 'spacing effect'
 * Ebbinghaus also discovered an optical illusion - the Ebbinghaus Illusion - where two identical circles appear differently sized
 * The forgetting curve shows the decline of memory retention in time; especially how information is lost over time when there is no attempt to retain it
 * The graph is exponentially downward trending - i.e. you forget as time goes on
 * The Learning curve = A curve which shows that learning improves with experience. Can also be S-curved
 * Defenestration = Throwing someone / thing out of a window
 * The spacing effect = The theory that cramming isn't as effective as learning by studying information over spread out time
 * Zeigarnik effect = Thee theory that people remember uncompleted / interrupted tasks better than completed ones. Based on Russian psychologist Bluma Zeigarnik's 1927 research where a waiter was found to remember unpaid orders but forgot the paid ones
 * Fis phenomenon = In child language acquisition, the perception of phonemes can occur earlier than the ability of the child to produce them. This comes from an example of a child referring to his plastic fish as a 'fis'. However, when asked by an adult 'Is this your fis?' he rejected the statement. When asked 'Is this your fish?' he said 'Yes, my fis'
 * Morris water navigation task = Maze in water for rats - used to test memory and learning.
 * Implicit memories can be split into 'procedural' and 'priming' memories. Procedural memory are 'easy' and unconcious (e.g. riding a bike, washing dishes)
 * Priming = Where exposure to one stimulus influences response to another; i.e. easilly recalling a recently heard word
 * (DEF) Trichotomy = 3-way split
 * Conjunctivitus = Pink eye

SU 09/07/17
 * Umbra, penumbra and antumbra = 3 distinct parts of a shadow created by any light source after impinging on an opaque object. Often used to describe the shadows cast by celestial bodies
 * Umbra = Latin for 'shadow' -> This is the inner-most & darkest part of a shadow, where the light source is completely blocked by the occluding body. An observer in the umbra experiences a total eclipse
 * Penumbra = Latin for 'almost shadow' -> This is the region where only a portion of the light source is obscured. An observer in the penumbra experiences a partial eclipse
 * Antumbra = Latin for 'before shadow' -> This is the region you'd see if you were blocking the light source. An observer in this region experiences an annular eclipse
 * There are 4 types of solar eclipse i) total ii) annular iii) hybrid iv) partial
 * Total eclipse = The moon completely obscures the sun, except some of the corona (Latin -> 'crown'; aura of plasma surrounding stars)
 * Annular eclipse = When the sun & moon are exactly in line with the earth, with the size difference causing the sun to appear as a very bright ring or annulus (Latin -> 'ring')
 * Hybrid eclipse = When an eclipse shifts between a total and annular eclipse AKA an 'annular / total eclipse'. They are quite rare
 * Partial eclipse = When the earth moves between the sun & moon but the 3 are not lined up perfectly. Hence, a small part of the moon is covered by the earth's umbra
 * Afterimage = An image that continues to appear in one's vision after exposure to it has ceased
 * Palinopsia= Where you see an image trailing even though the image is only in one position
 * Aphorism = An observation which contains a general truth
 * 221B Baker Street = Sherlock Holmes' address
 * In 1887 - when SH first appeared in 'A Study in Scarlet' - addresses in Baker Street didn't go up to 221
 * When the street was extended, the Abbey National Building Society moved into 219 - 229 Baker Street.
 * Abbey National employed a full-time secretary to answer the large amounts of mail addressed to Holmes
 * Since Abbey House's closure in 2005, the Sherlock Holmes Museum is considered as the new address even though it is located 237 - 241 Baker Street
 * Marilu Henner = American actress who played Elaine O'Connor Nardo on 'Taxi' from 1978 - 83. She is one of ~ 6 people to have hyperthymesia (highly superior autobiographical memory) and can remember every day of her life
 * Voynich Manuscript = An illustrated codex from the early 15th century written on vellum. It has been described as 'the world's most mysterious medieval manuscript', having been examined by cryptographers (including some from WWII), mathematicians and linguists
 * It is believed to be about medicine / pharmacy based on the illustrations. It was probably composed in N. Italy
 * The Codex Seraphinianus = A 1981 illustrated encyclopedia of an imaginary world created by Luigi Serafini
 * Araucaria araucana = The monkey puzzle tree, native to Chile / Argentina (national tree of Chile). It was cultivated in Britain ~ 1850 and was being shown by Sir William Molesworth, 8th Baronet to Charles Austin who remarked "It would puzzle a monkey to climb that"
 * Lutrinae = Otters
 * Enhydra lutris = Sea Otter
 * Romp (on land) / Rafte (in water) = Group of otters
 * Spraint = Otter dung. Smells like freshly mowed hay
 * Sea otters are the hairiest animal (1bn + hairs!)
 * Patterson-Gimlin film = Famous short film showing Bigfoot (nicknamed 'Patty') in 1967, at Bluff Creek (between California & Oregon

TH 18/04/19
 * Bananas are technically berries, their 'trees' are technically herbs
 * Their trees 'move'
 * Placing banana skin on your head is said to help migraines because it absorbs the potassium

TH 25/04/19
 * Arrector pili = Muscles at the base of hairs that cause goose bumps
 * Suggillation = Livor mortis (blueish death)

SA 27/04/19

TFL Codes (BUVSGLO):
 * Code 1: Blood
 * Code 2: Urine/faeces
 * Code 3: Vomit
 * Code 4: Spillage
 * Code 5: Glass
 * Code 6: Litter
 * Code 7: Other
 * Inspector Sands

FR 03/05/19
 * Potboiler = Piece of art that often panders to popular opinion just to 'pay the bills'

SU 05/05/19
 * Crotalus atrox = Western diamondback rattlesnake

MO 13/05/19
 * In Rome, 15,000 pieces of chewed gum are discarded on a daily basis and the removal of each piece costs the city one euro
 * Choi Gap-bok = 5'4" Korean man who had practiced yoga for 23 years but was arrested on suspicion of robbery. He escaped on the 6th day by applying skin ointment to his body and squeezing himself out through a tiny food slot at the bottom of the cell
 * Morning rice = South Korean drink
 * In Swahili, mudguards is madigadi, and a single mudguard is digadi, because ma- makes a world plural
 * IKEA’s drinking glasses were smaller than what Americans were used to – consumers were mistakenly purchasing flower vases to drink out of
 * "The last thing a fish notices is the water it swims in" = Being unaware of the context in which we live... until it changes - i.e awareness often only arises when faced with a new or changing context. For example, a company may take its technologies for granted until changed by another company, a technological evolution, etc.

TU 28/05/19
 * The Brain: The Story of You = 2015 book by David Eagleman
 * Your synapses peak (in numbers) at age 2, then you go through a ‘pruning stage’. You become who you are not because of what grows but because of what is pruned, gaining fewer but stronger connections.
 * Building a brain takes 25 years
 * The Bucharest Early Intervention Project found that for every 2.6 months spent in a Romanian institution a child falls behind one month of normal growth
 * Galvanic skin response = Shows how the electrical charges in the skin change
 * The medial prefrontal cortex peaks at 15yo and the teenager cares about how they are socially perceived. The adult brain doesn’t care as much; it’s grown used to self
 * By the time we’re 25, the brain is fully developed but can still be shaped (brain plasticity) – e.g. cab drivers pass ‘the knowledge’ (UCL found their brains had changed)
 * Albert Einstein's brain's frontal lobe showed “a large ‘knob’-shaped fold (the ‘knob’, known to surgeons as the sign of omega) in the right hemisphere, usually representing enlarged motor representation for the left hand. This is an unusual feature that is seen in some long-time right-handed violinists.” Einstein was such a violinist.
 * Charles Whitman wrote “I don’t really understand myself” and wanted an autopsy after his death. They conducted it and found a small tumor – his brain matter had been changing and it changed him.
 * Some research has indicated that Parkinson’s can lead to a losing interest in religion as it coincides with changes in the prefrontal cortex
 * Elizabeth Loftus studied memory in 1974 and found two types of information used to make memories: information gained DURING and AFTER an event. These can distort memories or make false ones - e.g. seeing glass in a car crash clip when there wasn't any.
 * David Bennett is studying the causes of Dementia in nuns and other volunteers. He has found amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles present decades before symptoms. People with higher education are perhaps less likely.
 * During the night, your neurons are still active but it's like a Mexican wave. In the day its like everyone is talking in the stadium
 * Brains are like snowflakes – there will never be another like yours
 * An experiment raised 2 kittens in darkness where one was made 'mobile' and one was made 'immobile'. The immobile one failed tests including the menace reflex and reacting to the visual cliff even though its eyes technically worked. It had not linked brain and vision
 * In the case of Mike May (skier who was blind at 3 but regained some sight at 46 with cornea transplants), he struggled to cope as he had visual cortex cells unaccustomed to the new stimuli
 * The prism goggles experiment showed plasticity. Children were given 10 beanbags to throw into a bucket, then made to wear vision altering glasses and had to relearn where to aim. They then took them off and had to unlearn and relearn the original way of throwing.
 * Internal Model = Similar to the mind’s eye, the idea that the brain uses internal models to control movements accurately (acquiring and refining these models through learning)
 * Our consciousness lags 80 milliseconds behind actual events; when you think an event occurs it has already happened
 * Tachypsychia = When you personally feel this time distortion
 * Our brains seek to create a cohesive picture of the world from stimuli that arrive at a range of times. If you touch your toe and nose at the same time, you feel them at the same time, even though the signal from your nose reaches your brain first. You hear and see a hand clap at the same time, even though auditory processing is faster than visual processing. Our brains also paper over gaps in information, such as blinks
 * Other examples include the Hollow mask illusion (Seeing concave as convex, the brain 'fills in the gaps') and Flash lag illusion (seeing two events separated even though they happen at the same time)
 * Alfred L. Yarbus asked his subjects to look at 'An Unexpected Visitor' (1888) by Ilya Repin and tracked their saccades. He asked them to observe different things - e.g. 'examine freely', 'estimate characters' ages' or 'estimate how long the visitor has been away' and noticed the eye tracking showed completely different paths
 * Although the brain, at 3 lbs (~ 1400g), represents 2% of total body weight, it accounts for 20% of energy used.
 * Arguably, there is no true reality – billions of alternative realities exist personal to each individual brain - see Reality tunnel. Schizophrenics struggle to differentiate their visions and reality
 * Due to priming, holding a hot drink means you’re more likely to describe your relationship with a family member more favorably. Similarly, you make harsher moral decisions in a foul smelling environment. This is because there are links between warmth etc. in the brain. Also, in a hard chair, you’ll be a harder negotiator. You’ll be more laid back in a softer chair
 * In a study by Geoffrey Miller, ovulating (most fertile) strippers made an average of $30 per hour more than menstruating women and $15 per hour more than other women. Women on the pill (typically don’t ovulate) made much less than naturally cycling women overall and had no “estrus earning peak.”
 * Read Montague found a link between people's emotional responses and their political views. He showed people disgusting images (feces, corpses etc.) and found the most disgusted were conservatives and the least disgusted were liberals
 * Ian Waterman had severe gastric flu at 19yo causing him to lose all feel / movement below the neck, except pain sensations. He lost his proprioception
 * He could not move in a controlled way and was effectively left paralysed as his brain could not easily enforce movement, nor could he gain the feedback to control it properly
 * Spinal locomotion is a case where you can walk without involving the brain. It has been observed in different cats and infers the existence of spinal circuitry capable of generating the locomotor pattern. This ability must be innate because it is seen even if kittens are spinalized (surgically separate the spinal cord and brain) before ‘learning’ to walk
 * Hypofrontality = Decreased cerebral blood flow (CBF) in the prefrontal cortex. It is thought to contribute to the negative symptoms of schizophrenia (and also attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), bipolar disorder, and major depressive disorder)
 * Naomi Eisenberger found that rejection lit up pain receptors in her experiment where a human was rejected by 2 AI figures who were throwing & catching a ball
 * Name-letter effect = People seem to like the letters in their name - e.g. Those with the initial K donated more to the Hurricane Katrina disaster relief
 * Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) = Neurostimulation method where electromagnetic induction is used to stimulate electric charge within the brain itself
 * Alien hand syndrome = Where a limb seems to have a mind of its own i.e. the user can't gain control over the actions, such as it unzipping your jacket on a freezing cold day. AKA Dr. Strangelove Syndrome
 * Kenneth Parks = 1987 case of Homicidal sleepwalking in Ontario, Canada. Parks' EEG signals meant he was found not guilty
 * Ulysses pact = A pact between your present and future self - e.g. arranging in advance for a friend to meet you at the gym means there is additional pressure to uphold a social contract. From the story of Ulysses wanting to avoid the Siren song by ordering his men to fill their ears with beeswax and to tie him to the mast
 * Ego depletion = The idea that self control or willpower is a limited resource - the more you use up, the less you have left over for elsewhere. For example, setting after-work plans but just watching TV / indulging in snacks due to the long day
 * Syndrome E = Ithzak Fried's 1997 idea that mass killings are caused by a dysfunctional neocortical brain - i.e. a developmental deficit
 * Sensory substitution = An approach introduced by Paul Bach-y-Rita] to compensate for an impaired sense in which sensory information is fed to the brain through different (often unusual) sensory channels - e.g. using tongue vibrations to communicate visual images. This is seen in the case of Erik Weihenmayer who was born with juvenile retinoschisis and went blind at 13yo. Still, he became the only blind person to climb Mt. Everest. Later, he 'saw' the rock surfaces on his tongue using Brainport for smaller climbs (not reliable enough for Everest)
 * He says he can also never forget seeing his son's first smile - “I could see his lips sort of shimmering, moving, and then I could see his mouth just kind of go ‘Brrrrp’ and take over his whole face. And that was cool, because I’d totally forgotten that smiles do that.”
 * Spinocerebellar ataxia = Genetic disorder causing poor gait and poor coordination hands, speech, and eye movements
 * Rasmussen's encephalitis = Rare disease (usually in children < 15 yo) causing seizures, loss of motor skills and speech, hemiparesis (weakness on one side of the body), encephalitis (inflammation of the brain), and dementia. It may be necessary to surgically remove or disconnect the affected cerebral hemisphere (Hemispherectomy)
 * Connectome = Comprehensive map of neural connections. The Human Connectome Project is looking to create a completed version
 * Human Brain Project = Scientific research project, based on exascale supercomputers, aiming to advance knowledge in the fields of neuroscience, computing, and brain-related medicine
 * Leibniz's gap = The problem that thoughts cannot be observed or perceived solely by examining brain properties, events, and processes. He likened it to a mill - i.e. suppose we created a machine that thinks and that we could walk around inside. Explaining the working components still wouldn't explain its thinking
 * Transhumanism (H+) = Movement calling for enhancing human intellect and physiology through technology. FM-2030 was a notable example. He would not eat anything that had a mother and said "I am a 21st century person who was accidentally launched in the 20th. I have a deep nostalgia for the future"
 * Alcor Life Extension Foundation = Cryonics organization in Scottsdale, Arizona, preserving corpses and heads - including Dick Clair, Ted Williams (even though he wanted to be cremated and scattered in the Florida Keys) & FM-2030
 * Mind uploading = Scanning the entire contents of a brain and uploading this to a computer
 * Brain in a vat = Descartes' idea where a brain is removed from the body and suspended it in a vat of life-sustaining liquid. The neurons are connected by wires to a supercomputer which simulates the normal electrical impulses to make the brain 'think' it exists as normal
 * iCub = Small, child-like learning robot
 * Mendota Juvenile Treatment Center Program, Madison, Wisconsin = Employs the social control theory and the 'Today-Tomorrow' program (points system) to allow youths to earn privileges for periods of positive behavior
 * Roger Fisher put forward a thought experiment where the US president must have to cut into the innards of a trusted aide to retrieve the nuclear button (to hit home the reality of taking innocent lives)

FR 31/05/19
 * Angel Pantoja Media (standing) and Miriam Burbank (sitting) were corpses who were set in poses at their own wakes
 * Dulce et Decorum est = Poem by Wilfred Owen during WW1, and published posthumously in 1920

SA 01/06/19
 * Chmess = Like chess but the king can move two squares in either direction - it's a game nobody really cares about
 * Daniel Dennett (2006) uses it to critique philosophical academia, saying 'chmess' provides a rich source of a priori truths to explore. However, the a priori truths of chmess are not particularly worthy of exploration

SU 02/06/19
 * The Greatest Show on Earth: The Evidence for Evolution = 2009 book by Richard Dawkins about evolution
 * Rabbit thought exp
 * Change blindness = Failing to notice major differences introduced into an image while it flickers off and on again
 * Neoteny = The delaying of development in an organism - e.g. Betty Boop retaining her baby head or an axolotl retaining its tadpole-like gills for life
 * Myostatin = Protein that limits the number of muscle fibers present at birth. Interfering with activity of it causes animals to be born with higher numbers of muscle fibers, thus augmenting muscle growth
 * Double-muscled cattle = Cattle disease where the myostatin protein is limited / eliminated
 * [DEF] Primrose Path = A deceptively easy course, but often the wrong one
 * Canaries follow strict rules by singing in syllable patterns - like "CCCCC, HHHHH, QQQQQ". These are often taught by their fathers / other senior males
 * In a study, computer generated songs were created to switch the rules around and mix the syllables - i.e. "lalalalala, dododododo, bebebebebe" became something like "la-be-ta-do-si", only for researchers to find the birds to copy these songs in perfect pitch
 * BUT they still used their strict versions for mating reasons

MO 03/06/19
 * Ampullae of Lorenzini = Discovered by Stefano Lorenzini, they are Electroreceptors found in several species of sharks and rays (batoidea)
 * Ampulla = A small bottle with 2 handles in Ancient Rome
 * Unguentarium = A small ceramic or glass bottle found frequently by archaeologists at Hellenistic and Roman sites, especially in cemeteries. Used to carry perfume
 * Taoiseach (pr. tee-shockhh) = Irish word for leader: refers to the the prime minister and head of government of Ireland
 * Why humans have chins is uncertain. Theories include protecting the jaw from chewing stress, for sexual selection (strong chins showing good genes) or just because our heads have evolved to be smaller

TU 04/06/19
 * Most mammals (but not humans) get around a billion heartbeats over their lifetime - at different speeds (e.g. mouse hearts beat fast, tortoise's are slow)
 * Hallelujah = Praise the lord

WE 05/06/19
 * Parambei village = Part of Papua New Guinea where people scar their skin to look like scales and evoke the spirit of the crocodile

TU 11/06/19
 * Nettie Stevens (1861 - 1912) = American woman who discovered sex chromosomes
 * Edmund Beecher Wilson = American who built on Stevens' work and wrote 'The Cell' (famous biology textbook)

WE 12/06/19
 * Venustraphobia = Fear of beautiful women
 * Genuphobia = Fear of knees / kneeling
 * Scriptophobia = Fear of writing in public
 * Logizomechanophobia = Fear of computers
 * Koumpounophobia = Fear of buttons (Steve Jobs) had this, hence touchscreens and turtlenecks)
 * Dextrophobia = Fear of objects on the right side of the body
 * Levophobia = Fear of objects on the left side of the body

TH 13/06/19
 * William Uternmohlen = Artist with Alzheimers (painted 5 self-portraits over progression of disease)
 * In Japan and Korea a Red thread of fate is said to be tied around two people who are destined to marry, meet or impact each other's lives. It may be the origin of the pinky swear
 * "The glass darkly" is from a portion of a Bible verse from the King James version of the Bible, 1 Corinthians Chap 13 verse 12: "For now we see through a glass, darkly; but then face to face: now I know in part; but then shall I know even as also I am known."
 * It basically mean we see fragments of the world and don't get a clear picture
 * "The Spirit is willing but the flesh is weak" was first recorded in the New Testament (Matthew 26:41), where Jesus tells his disciples: “Watch and pray, that ye enter not into temptation: the spirit indeed is willing, but the flesh is weak.” A modern equivalent is I would if I could but I can't.
 * Dasvidaniya = 'Goodbye' in Russian
 * Business = Collective noun for ferrets

SU 16/06/19
 * A single draft horse can pull a load up to 8,000 lb, but if two work together they pull 24,000lb (x 3 rather than x 2). If they are 'friends' (socialised and trained to work together), it can be x 4, i.e. 32,000lb!

TH 20/06/19
 * Nafovanny = Vietnamese monkey testing farm

TU 25/06/19
 * [DEF] Sonder = The profound feeling of realizing that everyone, including strangers passed in the street, has a life as complex as one's own, which they are constantly living despite one's personal lack of awareness of it
 * Mysticeti = Baleen Whales

TU 02/07/19
 * Sharks rely on ram ventilation, forcing water into the mouth and over the gills by rapidly swimming forward. They die when they stop swimming

WE 03/07/19
 * Love is named after l'oeuf ('egg' in French) as a nil or nought score is usually called a duck / goose egg in sports.

TH 17/07/19
 * Obdormition = When a limb goes to sleep. Virtually synonymous with paresthesia
 * Lucanidae = Stag beetle - seen on the cover of Mezzanine (album)
 * Ablaut reduplication = The precise vowel order in phrases - e.g. 'tick-tock', 'flip-flop'
 * Almost all of the diurnal birds of prey (owls, eagles, hawks etc.) have no sense of smell
 * Shogi = Japanese version of chess
 * Papadopoulos = Greek surname meaning 'son of a priest'
 * Kovač = Slavic surname meaning 'blacksmith'
 * Murphy = Most common surname in ROI, meaning sea-warrior / sea-battler
 * Saha ionization equation = Explains the spectral classification of stars
 * Magic number (physics) = Number of nucleons (either protons or neutrons, separately) such that they are arranged into complete shells within the atomic nucleus - e.g. 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, and 126
 * Stamford Raffles (1781 – 1826) = Founder of Singapore and the British Malaya. The corpse lilly (Rafflesia arnoldii) is named after him and the British botanist Joseph Arnold
 * Ginkgo biloba (Japanese for 'silver fruit') = The maidenhair tree
 * Gilbert Ryle (1900 - 1976) = British philosopher who coined the phrase "the Ghost in the machine" (description of René Descartes' mind-body dualism)
 * Foster's rule AKA the Island Effect = Rule stating that members of a species get smaller or bigger depending on the resources available in the environment
 * Wolfe Tone (1762 - 1798) = Leading Irish revolutionary figure and one of the founding members of the United Irishmen. Regarded as the father of Irish republicanism and leader of the 1798 Irish Rebellion
 * In 1626, Francis Bacon decided to experiment with the effect of cold on the decay of meat. He stuffed a fowl with snow but caught a cold and developed bronchitis, dying on April 9
 * Clinker = Small lumps or nodules produced by sintering
 * Sintering = The process of compacting and forming a solid mass of material by heat or pressure without melting it to the point of liquefaction. AKA frittage.
 * ʻAʻā = One of three basic types of flow lava (the others are Pāhoehoe and blocky)
 * Gulag = Glavnoe Upravlenie Lagerei (Main Camp Administration)
 * Prisoners could be forced to work 14 hours a day, often in extreme weather. Many died of starvation, disease or exhaustion — others were simply executed
 * Retromolar fossa = Hollow depression located at the bottom-back of the mouth, near the lower wisdom tooth
 * Horseshoe theory = The idea that the extreme left and extreme right are basically the same thing. Posited by Jean-Pierre Faye
 * There are 8 times as many atoms in a teaspoonful of water as there are teaspoonfuls of water in the Atlantic ocean
 * In many cities, the west end is swankier than the east end because during the industrial revolution, the smog from factories blew east, leaving cleaner air in the west
 * Slugs have two pairs of tentacles - they basically have 4 noses
 * 'Trivia' comes from the Latin word 'trivium' (a place where three roads meet)
 * Amen break = Drum break in the 1969 track "Amen, Brother" by the Winstons. One of the most sampled recordings ever
 * Koalas can't recognise eucalyptus leaves unless they're on a branch
 * Koalas sleep 90% of their lives and their babies eat their mother's poop at birth so they develop the stomach biomes letting them eat [otherwise toxic] eucalyptus
 * Demesne = Virtually identical to a 'domain' but 'demesne' implies a medieval feudal context more than 'domain' does
 * Seven Wonders of the Ancient World =>
 * 1) Great Pyramid of Giza, El Giza, Egypt the only one that still exists.
 * 2) Colossus of Rhodes, in Rhodes, on the Greek island of the same name.
 * 3) Hanging Gardens of Babylon, in Babylon, near present-day Hillah, Babil province, in Iraq.
 * 4) Lighthouse of Alexandria, in Alexandria, Egypt.
 * 5) Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, in Halicarnassus, Achaemenid Empire, modern day Turkey.
 * 6) Statue of Zeus at Olympia, in Olympia, Greece.
 * 7) Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, in Ephesus (near the modern town of Selçuk in present-day Turkey)
 * The Morrígan = Irish goddess of fate / death
 * Khagan (opposite of Khatun = A title / rank meaning 'King of Kings' or 'Khan of Khans'. Genghis Khan was the first Khagan of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous (without water seperating) empire in history after his death. Ögedei Khan (his 3rd son was named his successor)
 * Genghis Khan (1162 – 1227) was born Temüjin (meaning 'blacksmith') near the mountain Burkhan Khaldun
 * Yesugei = GK's father: his name literally means "like 9", meaning he had the auspicious qualities of the number 9, a lucky number to the Mongols. He was married to Hoelun
 * Legend says Temüjin was born grasping a tribblood clot in his fist, a traditional sign that he was destined to become a great leader
 * GK's wife was Börte (1161 - 1230). She got married to him at 17, but was kidnapped by the Merkits (rival tribe). GK and future rival Jamukha rescued her
 * GK's sons were Jochi (1182–1227), Chagatai (1183–1242), Ögedei (1186–1241), and Tolui (1191–1232)
 * A rivalry started as Jamukha supported the traditional Mongolian aristocracy, while Temüjin followed a meritocratic method, and included the lower classes
 * A shaman told GK the Eternal Blue Sky had set aside the world for him and he began seeking power
 * Tengrism = Central Asian religion (followed by GK), characterized by shamanism, animism, ancestor worship etc.
 * Khukh tengri means "blue sky" in Mongolian, Mongolians still pray to Munkh Khukh Tengri ("Eternal Blue Sky") and Mongolia is sometimes poetically called the "Land of Eternal Blue Sky" (Munkh Khukh Tengriin Oron) by its inhabitants
 * GK was beaten by Jamukha in early conflict but Jamukha horrified and alienated potential followers by boiling 70 young male captives alive in cauldrons
 * Yassa = Laws introduced by GK as he started selecting people on merit and loyalty, promising them wealth and future war spoils
 * GK integrated conquered people into his own party and got his mother to sometimes adopt the orphans
 * When Jamukha was declared 'universal ruler', GK moved in to defeat him - Jamukha was turned in by his own men in 1206. He refused GK's offer of friendship and requested the honorable death (meaning having your back broken and minimizing blood)
 * GK was considered a quick student, adopting new technologies and ideas that he encountered, such as siege warfare from the Chinese. He was also ruthless, measuring against the linchpin.
 * Measuring against the linchpin = Mongols' method to determine which enemy civilians would be beheaded. All male captives were forced to walk beside a wagon wheel. If their heads were higher than the linchpin(a pin inserted at the end of the axle) they were immediately executed
 * By 1206, Genghis Khan had managed to unite or subdue the Merkits, Naimans, Mongols, Keraites, Tatars, Uyghurs, and other disparate smaller tribes under his rule. This was a monumental feat. It resulted in peace between previously warring tribes, and a single political and military force. The union became known as the Mongols
 * GK's 3 eldest sons got most of his possessions (soliders, property etc.) when he died
 * GK's cause of death is unknown - it is possible he fell from a horse when hunting. Others think he died in a battle
 * The funeral escort killed anyone / anything in their path to conceal where he was finally buried
 * There were tax exemptions for religious figures and, to some extent, teachers and doctors.
 * The Mongol Empire practiced religious tolerance because Mongol tradition had long held that religion was a personal concept, and not subject to law or interference
 * GK put absolute trust in his generals, such as Muqali, Jebe and Subutai, and regarded them as close advisors, often extending them the same privileges and trust normally reserved for close family members
 * Gk is credited with bringing the Silk Road under one cohesive political environment. This allowed increased communication and trade between the West, Middle East and Asia, thus expanding the horizons of all three cultural areas
 * Mongolians maintain that the historical records written by non-Mongolians are unfairly biased against Genghis Khan and that his butchery is exaggerated
 * Today, his name and likeness appear on products, streets, buildings etc. His face can be found from liquor bottles to candy, and on the largest denominations of 500, 1,000, 5,000, 10,000, and 20,000 Mongolian tögrög (₮)
 * Chinggis Khaan International Airport = Ulaanbaatar's main airport
 * He is also credited for introducing the traditional Mongolian script and hid birthday is celebrated as a national holiday
 * Nintendo was founded in 1889
 * Denali (in Alaska) = Highest peak in N. America at 20,310 ft (6190 m)
 * Aconcagua = Tallest mountain outside of Asia. Located in Argentina
 * Puncak Jaya = Highest peak in Australia. Located in Indonesia
 * Armageddon comes from the Hebrew 'har megiddo', referencing to 'Mount Megiddo', the place of the last battle at the Last Judgement in Revelation 16:16
 * Havoc comes from 'cry havoc', a military signal for soldiers to start plundering their fallen enemies
 * Augury = Ancient Roman religious practice of interpreting omens from birds' flight
 * Dowsing = Spiritual way of trying to detect water
 * Lysenkoism (lasting 1920 - 1964) = Political campaign conducted by Trofim Lysenko, his followers and Soviet authorities against genetics and science-based agriculture. Many scientists were killed to silence them
 * Cascadia = Pacific North West

SA 20/07/19
 * Wobbly hedgehog syndrome = Hedgehog's version of MS
 * Certain sites of the human body have 'immune privilege', meaning they are able to tolerate the introduction of antigens without eliciting an inflammatory immune response
 * Gingivitis is contagious
 * horses are Incapable of vomiting. If they need to throw up, they die
 * Dendrocnide moroides (gympi gympie) = Australian plant known for stinging hairs that cover the whole plant and deliver a potent neurotoxin when touched. The paint is extremely potent and lasts months.
 * Sand tiger sharks eat their siblings when born. Only the biggest and strongest one lives as a form of selection. This is called 'intrauterine cannibalization' or 'adelphophagy' (literally "eating one's brother")
 * suicide every 40 seconds
 * Coronal mass ejection (CME) = Significant release of plasma and accompanying magnetic field from the solar corona. If impacting earth, can cause massive damage to satellites and infrastructure causing long-term power outages (maybe months)
 * Tameshigiri = Japanese 'test cuts' - the sharpness of a sword's blade was often measure in 'bodies' after testing it on cadavers or prisoners. Older swords can still be found which have inscriptions on their nakago (tang) that say such things as; "5 bodies with Ryu Guruma (hip cut)". Such an inscription, known as a tameshi-mei or saidan-mei (cutting signature) would add greatly to a sword's value, compensating the owner somewhat for the large sums of money typically charged for the test.
 * Dolphins are believed to commit suicide by drowning (as in 'Peter', trained by Margaret Howe Lovatt)
 * Tarsiers can commit suicide when stressed or exhibited in a zoo
 * Motorcycle rider deaths are estimated to be ~x30 times more than drivers of other vehicles
 * This theory of time perception was said to be first posed by Paul Janet in 1897
 * How you perceive time is said to be relative to your lifespan. So 1 year at one years old seems so long because it's 100% of your life. In your 50s, it's a small amount. Children always ask 'are we there yet' because they're perceiving time to be slower, parents see them grow up faster than they experience it etc.
 * If you measure your life this way, in "perceived" time rather than actual time, half of your "perceived life" is over by age 7. If you factor in the fact that you don't remember much of your first three years, then half of your perceived life is over by the time you turn 18
 * ac is a vicious cycle. Americans saves tens of thousands annually
 * germans are trying to make one that captures co2
 * armadillos can carry and transfer leprosy to humans
 * Syringomyelia (condition affecting the brain and spine, causing symptoms ranging from mild discomfort to severe pain and partial paralysis) is rare in most breeds but has become widespread in the Cavalier King Charles Spaniel, with international research samples in the past few years consistently showing over 90% of Cavaliers have the malformation, possibly due to inbreeding
 * Syringomyelia = Blocks the flow of cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) around the brain and spine and increases the fluid's pressure, creating turbulence which in turn is believed to create fluid pockets, or syrinxes (hence the term syringomyelia), in the spinal cord - destroying it
 * Shining a flashlight on a newborn turtle for too long dooms them to death (it becomes imprinted and they think they're following the moon but go in circles forever)
 * Under Mao Zedong, a dentist was executed for malicious slander for comparing a mango to a sweet potato
 * Because heroin is such a quick-acting drug, the body needs to prepare itself before the injection takes place. It takes its cues from the environment. If you always do it at home, the body prepares to chemically deal with the drug. It is more dangerous when taken at a completely new location
 * Statistically, you walk past 11 murderers in a lifetime
 * Baby skulls have two rows of teeth
 * Anthropodermic bibliopegy = Binding a book with human skin. One is kept at Harvard University
 * Unit 731 = WW2 Japan's human experiments lab - included human vivisections to test what diseases did to the body, freezing limbs and flamethrowers being tested on humans
 * Some prisoners had their stomachs surgically removed and the esophagus reattached to the intestines. Parts of organs, such as the brain, lungs, and liver, were removed from some prisoners
 * Testing bubonic plague, cholera, smallpox, botulism and other diseases led to the development of the defoliation bacilli bomb
 * During the final months of WW2, Japan planned to use plague as a biological weapon against San Diego, California (Operation Cherry Blossoms at Night)
 * Helen Palmer (1898 - 1967) = Wife of Theodor Geisel (Dr. Seuss) who killed herself after he had an affair. She told him to tell everyone she died of natural causes to keep his career from being ruined
 * Ophiocordyceps unilateralis = Fungus that creates 'zombie ants'. It eats away at their nonvital organs until it reaches their brain. Once their brain is infected the fungus controls the ant and makes them climb to an elevated location and bite down on the underside of a leaf. The ant hangs there upside down until it dies and the fungus sprouts from inside the ant's head and releases spores down onto the colony to infect more ants
 * People would eat mummies (Mummia) as a kind of cure-all. Mummy brown (sometimes called Caput mortuum) was a pigment made up of crushed mummies and was a favourite of the Pre-Raphaelites
 * In Ancient Egypt, cats were mummified and mourned by their owners shaving off their eyebrows. They continued to mourn until the eyebrows grew back
 * Rip Torn once broke into the bank thinking it was his home
 * He hit Norman Mailer with a Hammer when filming Maidstone (1970), then Mailer bit his ear
 * Manchineel = Deadly tree because it has fruits that look like apples but are actual toxic and usually result in death if eaten
 * Tarantulas taste very similar to shrimp (both are arthropods)
 * TNT stands for trinitrotoluene (pr. Try-Nitro-Tall-You-Ween)

WE 24/07/19
 * United States Department of the Interior (DOI) = US department that manages conservation and programs relating to Native Americans, Alaska Natives, Native Hawaiians, territorial affairs, and insular areas of the United States. Nicknamed 'The Department of Everthing Else'
 * Teapot Dome scandal (1921) = Called 'greatest and most sensational scandal in the history of American politics' prior to the Watergate scandal
 * Albert B. Fall (1861 - 1944) = The Secretary of the Interior under President Warren G. Harding. The TD scandal occured when he accepted bribes from two of his friends, oilmen Harry F. Sinclair and Edward L. Doheny, for leases to drill in parts of the Naval Reserves at Teapot Dome, Wyoming
 * Fall made the original statement (later used in There Will Be Blood) "Sir, if you have a milkshake and I have a milkshake and my straw reaches across the room, I'll end up drinking your milkshake". The scandal was planned at Little Green House on K Street and Fall was later jailed for a year
 * Under Ronald Reagan, James G. Watt became Secretary of the Interior from 1981 - 83
 * He once banned The Beach Boys from playing a 1983 Independence Day concert, believing they encouraged drug use and alcoholism
 * Watt apologized to The Beach Boys after learning that President Reagan and First Lady Nancy Reagan were fans of the band. The White House staff gave Watt a plaster foot with a hole for his "having shot himself in the foot". Watt would be convicted for perjury in the earl 90s for several lies under oath
 * (DEF) Hysteresis = A delayed response by an object to changes in the forces acting on it
 * Ava DuVernay = Filmmaker notable for Selma, 13th, A Wrinkle in Time and When They See Us
 * Jellyfish are types of Cnidaria. Cnidaria bodies consist of mesoglea (mostly water but also mixed with a jelly-like substance)
 * Anya Shrubsole = In 2018, became the first woman to appear on the cover of Wisden Cricketers' Almanack - pictured with the world cup
 * Magnetic monopole = The idea of an elementary particle that only has one magnetic pole (a north pole without a south pole or vice versa). There is no evidence that they exist - if you actually try to cut the north pole and south pole of a magnet in two, the new piece will still function as a smaller magnet with a north and south side
 * Dyon = Hypothetical particle with both electric and magnetic charges. A dyon with a zero electric charge is usually referred to as a magnetic monopole
 * Many grand unified theories predict the existence of both magnetic monopoles and dyons
 * Edvard Grieg (1843 - 1907) = Norwegian composer from Bergen (West coast of Norway)
 * Chan Chan (meaning 'sun sun') = Largest city of the pre-Columbian era in South America - now in La Libertad Region, west of Peru
 * It was the capital of the Chimor empire from 900 to 1470 - when they were defeated and taken by the Inca Empire
 * Polaris and Polaris Australis are earth's pole stars (bright stars closely aligned to the axis of rotation of an astronomical object)
 * Alum Bay = Bay near the westernmost point of the Isle of Wight
 * Morecambe Bay = Large estuary in northwest England, just to the south of the Lake District National Park. Home of one of Britain's most threatened butterflies; the high brown fritillary butterfly - named after the flower Fritillaria (fritillaria)
 * In a Shawnee tale, the bobcat is outwitted by a rabbit, which gives rise to its spots. After trapping the rabbit in a tree, the bobcat (Lynx rufus) is persuaded to build a fire, only to have the embers scattered on its fur, leaving it singed with dark brown spots
 * 'Bob' refers to their short tails

WE 31/07/19
 * It’s said of a painting or artwork by Aristotle that it is complete when nothing can be added to it, nor taken away from it, without diminishing it
 * Afflatus (a gust of inspiration) = Meaning "to be blown upon" by a divine wind, used to signify 'inspiration'
 * Talebearer = Someone who's a loud gossip
 * Spanish fly (Lytta vesicatoria) = An emerald green beetle, often crushed and used in Apothecary. In Ancient China, they were mixed with human excrement and used to make stink bombs. It was rumoured that Simón Bolívar (eponym of Bolivia) died from Spanish fly poisoning
 * Furosemide (Brand name -> Lasix) = Medication used to treat fluid build-up due to heart failure, liver scarring, or kidney disease. When taken by mouth, it typically begins working within an hour, while intravenously, it typically begins working within five minutes
 * Uracil = One of five primary nucleobases — adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), thymine (T), and uracil (U)
 * Nucleobase = Nitrogen-containing biological compounds that form nucleosides
 * Ferrochrome = A corrosion-resistant alloy of chrome and iron containing between 50% and 65% chrome
 * Dystrophic lake = Llakes that contain high amounts of humic substances and organic acids. They're highly acidic meaning not much life can thrive, except bacteria
 * Ducal = Of or pertaining to a duke, a duchess, or the duchy or dukedom they hold
 * laicization = The process of secularisation
 * Greengage = Type of European plum, originating from Iran
 * Unprepossessing = Unimpressive or unremarkable; dull and ordinary; nondescript
 * Drabbet = A coarse linen fabric - e.g. a drabbet smock
 * Chaplet = Headdress in the form of a wreath made of leaves, flowers or twigs woven into a ring

SA 10/08/19
 * Caul = Membrane covering a newborn's head / face. Birth with caul is rare (< 1 / 80,000) and is immediately removed
 * Lord Byron, Sigmund Freud, Liberace, Kim Woodburn and Jonas Salk were born this way
 * When an infant is born inside the entire amniotic sac, it's known as an 'en-caul' birth
 * It used to be believed that the child was destined for greatness and could never drown
 * 5.88 trillion miles = Light year
 * Barbara Stanwyck (1907 - 1990) = US actress who started in the 1920s in the Ziegfeld Follies
 * She was once (1944) the heighest-paid woman in the US and was a favourite of Cecil B. DeMille, Fritz Lang and Frank Capra

WE 04/09/19
 * Floundering and foundering can be used interchangeably - the main difference is based on ships, where floundering (struggling to maintain position) comes first, followed by foundering (losing it by falling, sinking or failing)
 * Evangelista Torricelli (1608 - 1647) = Italian physicist and student of Galileo. He invented the barometer in 1631
 * Hideki Yukawa (1907 - 1981) = First Japanese Nobel laureate (for his prediction of the pi meson in 1935)
 * MOSFET AKA MOS transistor = Metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor, the most widely manufactured device in history (> 13 septillion MOS transistors made between 1960 and 2018)
 * MOSFET was invented in 1959 by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng
 * MMIC = Monolithic microwave integrated circuit
 * RFIC = Radio Frequency Integrated Circuit, used for radar and communications
 * Tara Mine = Europe's largest zinc mine, located near Navan, County Meath, Ireland
 * Four Corners = Rregion of the US consisting of the southwestern corner of Colorado, southeastern corner of Utah, northeastern corner of Arizona, and northwestern corner of New Mexico
 * Four Corners Monument = Where Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah meet. It is maintained as a tourist attraction by the Navajo Nation
 * Quadripoint = A point on the Earth that touches the border of four distinct territories
 * Eddie Cantor (1892 - 1964) = US singer who came up with the phrase 'March of Dimes', which became a charity for mothers and babies in 1938 with his help
 * The Bowery-el Phenomenon = Named after a rail line in NYC, it means how well one becomes used to repeated stimulus that, when it is removed, it leaves a phantom stimulus behind
 * In this case, the Bowery El ran regularly through the city and could be heard by the residents but when it was torn down, people woke up at the times the train would go by and reported that things didn't feel right. The silence had created a new phenomenon

MO 09/09/19
 * Pafnuty Chebyshev (1821 - 1894) = Russian mathemaician who had Trendelenburg's gait. Known for his work on probability - e.g. Chebyshev's inequality, about the range of standard deviations around the mean
 * Alice Prin (AKA Kiki de Montparnasse) (1901 - 1953) = A muse for French artists, often working with Man Ray and also photographed by Julian Mandel
 * Cormac McCarthy wrote 'No Country for Old Men' in 2005, the film came out 2 years later
 * He also wrote All the Pretty Horses in 1992
 * Amanda Levete = British architect who designed the Selfridges Building, Birmingham and the Lord's Media Centre with then-husband Jan Kaplický
 * Kingdom of Alba = The Kingdom of Scotland between the deaths of Donald II (Domnall mac Causantin) in 900 and of Alexander III in 1286, which then led indirectly to the Scottish Wars of Independence
 * Liquid crystal = State of matter that is 'between a traditional liquid and solid crystal'
 * Elizabeth Gaskell (1810 - 1865) = Writer who published the first biography of a Brontë (The Life of Charlotte Brontë) in 1857
 * Other novels include Cranford (1851–53), North and South (1854–55), and Wives and Daughters (1865), each having been adapted for television by the BBC
 * ORLAN (Mireille Suzanne Francette Porte) = French 'body artist' who is most famous for her 1990s work 'The Reincarnation of Saint-ORLAN', using plastic surgeries to resemble previous artworks - e.g. taking the Mona Lisa forehead and the Birth of Venus chin
 * In the 60s, famous early works included 'Marches au ralenti' ('slow motion walks', walking as slowly as possible between two points at Saint-Étienne and 'MesuRAGEs' (using her body as a ruler to measure how many people (measured in 'ORLAN-bodies') could fit in a certain place etc.)
 * She sued Lady Gaga in 2013 (but lost), claiming 'Born This Way' plagarized her work
 * Anachronism = Where things are put together but the timelines are wrong - e.g. humans and dinosaurs together in the Flintstones

WE 11/09/19
 * Chirality comes from the Greek for hand and means 'asymmetric' - e.g. a Chiral knot
 * Ecce means 'behold', as in Ecce homo
 * Unbirthday = Every day that isn't your birthday. From Alice's Adventures in Wonderland
 * Runcible = Nonsense word used by Edward Lear in the Owl and the Pussycat to describe a spork
 * Dolorous = Showing great sorrow or distress
 * Eustress = Stress that is 'good' for you
 * Excarnation = Removing the flesh from a body before burying it
 * Esemplastic = Samuel Taylor Coleridge's word for 'shaping ideas', specifically artists taking images, words, and emotions from a number of realms of human endeavour and thought and unifying them all into a single work - e.g. "the esemplastic power of a great mind to simplify the difficult"
 * Pay through the nose = Pay much more than a reasonable price
 * When the Danes conquered Ireland in the 9th century, they took a census by “counting noses”. Exorbitant taxes were imposed on each “nose”, thus one had to 'pay through the nose'.
 * Safari cam into Swahili through Arabic ('safar' meaning a journey)

SA 14/09/19
 * White-collar worker = Working in professional, managerial, or administrative areas - e.g. business, IT etc.
 * Blue-collar worker = A working class person who performs manual labor - e.g. plumbers, farmers etc.
 * Grey-collar = Between White + blue, not so well defined - e.g. pilots, police etc.
 * Green-collar worker = A worker who is employed in the environmental sectors of the economy
 * Pink-collar worker = Care-oriented workers - e.g. nurses, babysitters etc.

FR 04/10/19
 * Prevagen = Medication made from a protein called apoaequorin, which is found in a species of jellyfish that glows in the dark. It was said to boost memory
 * St George the Dragon Slayer In Retirement Syndrome = When he slays the dragon, he looks for more but they are smaller and smaller until he's swinging his sword at air. Used as a metaphor for modern views
 * Villain comes from an old word for 'farmer'
 * Villanelle = A type of 19-line poem; e.g. 'Do not go gentle into that good night'
 * "Loss and gain are brothers twain" is a phrase used in Tolstoy's How Much Land Does a Man Need? (1886)

MO 14/10/19
 * The Kalenjin people have often been called "the running tribe" as most Kenyan champions belong to this group

FR 18/10/19
 * In 1968, Dizzy Gillespie converted to the Bahá'í Faith after discussing the oneness of humanity and the elimination of racism with an audience member
 * Canadian architect Louis Bourgeois was also Bahá'í and designed Bahá'í House of Worship (Wilmette, Illinois)
 * Poland's three longest rivers = The Vistula (650 miles), The Warta (500 miles) and The Oder (460 miles)
 * Moral hazard = A situation where the behavior of one party may change to the detriment of another after the transaction has taken place. For example, a person with insurance against automobile theft may be less cautious about locking their car (it can therefore often be said that MH occurs when someone increases their exposure to risk when insured, especially when a person takes more risks because someone else bears the cost of those risks)
 * Avocet = Wader bird in the Recurvirostra genus. It is the emblem of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds
 * The RSPB was formed in 1889 by Emily Williamson at her house in Didsbury as a protest group campaigning against the use of great crested grebe and kittiwake skins and feathers in fur clothing
 * Didsbury derives its name from the Anglo-Saxon Dyddi's burg, probably referring to a man known as Dyddi whose stronghold or township it was
 * Chris Ofili = Manchester-born British painter living and working in Port of Spain
 * Ofili is known for the Turner Prize-winning 'The Holy Virgin Mary' (first black person to win it - in 1998). He has described his painting as a hip hop version of traditional Old Master paintings of the Virgin Mary
 * Colossus of Rhodes = 108 ft high statue (similar height to the SoL) of Greek sun-god Helios, erected in the city of Rhodes, on the Greek island of the same name, by Chares of Lindos in 280 BC
 * It was constructed to celebrate Rhodes' victory over the ruler of Cyprus, Antigonus I Monophthalmus, whose son Demetrius I of Macedon unsuccessfully besieged Rhodes in 305 BC
 * It collapsed during the earthquake of 226 BC but people want to rebuild a modern version
 * Temple of the Tooth (Kandy, Sri Lanka) = Buddhist temple housing the Relic of the tooth of the Buddha
 * According to legend, the Buddha died in 543 BC, was cremated and had his lefft canine tooth retrieved from the pyre by his disciple, Khema (she was a nun)
 * A belief grew that whoever possessed the tooth relic had a divine right to rule that land
 * Bobby Hutton AKA Lil' Bobby (1950 - 1968) = Treasurer and first recruit to join the Black Panthers
 * Robert Sandifer AKA Yummy (1983 - 1994) = 11 year old (4'6") Chicago street gang member of the Black Disciples. He was killed by members of his own gang and feature on the cover of TIME magazine in 1994

MO 21/10/19  19-Sep-82 11:44   Scott E  Fahlman From: Scott E Fahlman 
 * WD-40 = Water Displacement - 40th Formula (it was the 40th attempt to create the product)
 * SPAM was introduced by Hormel Foods Corporation in 1937. Although they claim the meaning the name "only known by a small circle of former Hormel Foods executives", it is popularly considered a portmanteau of 'spiced ham'
 * The first spam email was an ad for DECSYSTEM-20 sent by Gary Thuerk on May 1, 1978, to several hundred users on ARPANET
 * This term comes from a 1970 Monty Python sketch where a cafe is selling spam-based items only and the customers start singing: "Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam… Lovely Spam! Wonderful Spam!"
 * In 1970, Jack Cover formed Taser Systems, Inc.. He launched the TASER in 1974 and named it for a Tom Swift novel (by Victor Appleton) about the Thomas A. Swift's Electric Rifle
 * SCUBA = Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus
 * Francisco Franco ruled Spain from 1939 until his death in 1975. He was buried at Valle de los Caídos (the Valley of the Fallen), just outside Madrid
 * A. V. Dicey (1835 - 1922) = British Whig jurist and constitutional theorist who authored the 'Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution' (1885). This would become a part of uncodified British constitution
 * Scott Fahlman = American computer scientist known for his work on the Common Lisp language
 * In 1982, he coined the emoticon in an email, than read:

I propose that the following character sequence for joke markers:



Read it sideways. Actually, it is probably more economical to mark things that are NOT jokes, given current trends. For this, use




 * However, this appeared before in Reader's Digest in 1967 and, in 1969, Nabokov said in an interview: ""I often think there should exist a special typographical sign for a smile — some sort of concave mark, a supine round bracket"
 * In Russia, the colon punctuation mark is not used on the Russian keyboard, so ) shows happiness and ))) shows extreme happiness
 * In an 1862 speech transcript, Abraham Lincoln wrote "(applause and laughter ;)". It is not clear if the ;) was intentional or a mistake
 * Harvey Ball = US artist recognized as the designer of a popular yellow smiley graphic picture
 * Shigetaka Kurita = Emoji inventor
 * Aposiopesis = Where a sentence is deliberately broken off and left unfinished, the ending to be supplied by the imagination, giving an impression of unwillingness or inability to continue - e.g. "Get out, or else—!"
 * Prosiopesis = A word / phrase where you don't pronounce or omit the beginning - e.g. "Morning" instead of "Good Morning"
 * Iguazu Falls = World's largest waterfall system
 * Marcescence = The retention of dead plant organs that are normally shed

FR 25/10/19
 * Calixa Lavallée (1824 - 1891) = Composer, famous for the music to O Canada
 * Adolphe-Basile Routhier (1839 - 1920) = Canadian judge / poet who wrote the original French lyrics. An English version was completed by Robert Stanley Weir in 1908 and the anthem was adopted by the nation in 1980
 * Thomas Piketty = French economist who wrote Capital in the Twenty-First Century in 2013, arguing that wealth inequality will increase as the rate of capital return in developed countries is persistently greater than the rate of economic growth
 * Proditomania = Thinking that everyone else is a traitor / out to get you
 * Spine Race = Ultramarathon held over 268 miles along the Pennine Way
 * Litotes = Figure of speech where you emphasize the inverse of something to emphasize the whole - e.g. "He isn't the cleanest person I know" = Messiest person I know / "Not the most skilled at tennis" = A terrible player
 * It is from the Greek word for 'simple'
 * Sick sinus syndrome (SSS) = Group of abnormal heart rhythms caused by a malfunction of the sinus node
 * Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome (WPWS) = [Often hereditary] Problem with electrical conduction system of the heart that can cause an abnormally fast heartbeat, palpitations, shortness of breath, lightheadedness, or syncope
 * Paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia (PSVT) = Type of tachycardia with unknown cause but often coming from WPWS. More common in women
 * Catheter ablation = A procedure used to remove or terminate a faulty electrical pathway from sections of the heart. Used to treat WPWS and PSVT
 * Dural venous sinuses = Channels in the brain that receive blood from the cerebral veins
 * PCR = Polymerase Chain Reaction; a method to replicate specific DNA segments
 * Developed by Kary Mullis in 1983. He won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1993
 * Irtysh River = A 2,640 mi river in Russia, China, and Kazakhstan. It is the chief tributary of the Ob River and is often mentioned in Crime and Punishment (1886)

SA 26/10/19
 * Gadaffi's 110 page 'Green Book' was first published in 1975 - "intended to be read by all people"
 * It's split into three parts: i) The Solution of the Problem of Democracy: The Authority of the People    ii) The Solution of the Economic Problem: Socialism     iii) The Social Basis of the Third International Theory
 * The Green Book rejects both capitalism and communism, as well as representative democracy. Instead, it proposes a type of direct democracy overseen by the General People's Committee which allows direct political participation for all adult citizens
 * The Green Book states that freedom of speech is based upon public ownership of book publishers, newspapers, television, and radio stations, on the grounds that private ownership would be undemocratic
 * Other key arguments include 'needs' being forced onto people and them therefore losing freedom, everyone should only own one house to avoid exploiting others with rent, that social units are 4 groups (individuals, families, tribes, nations) of decreasing closeness and nationalism holds a nation together, men & women are equal in terms of human rights but should be given appropriate (and distinct) working roles, black people will prevail due to their culture (polygamy, relaxed birth control and not working due to living where it is 'too hot'), formal education is dictatorial, humans should eventually have a unified language and not have artistic and cultural tastes based on their own language as presently, spectatorship in sports is foolish and people should play themselves instead of watching others
 * Libyan children spent two hours a week studying the book as part of their curriculum
 * Martin Asser (BBC journalist) stated "it is bitterly ironic that a text whose professed objective is to break the shackles... has been used instead to subjugate an entire population"

WE 30/10/19
 * Library of Alexandria = One of the largest and most significant libraries of the ancient world
 * Callimachus (writer of Pinakes, a lost bibligraphy believed to be the first ever library catalog) and Eratosthenes of Cyrene (calculated the circumference of the earth within a few hundred km of accuracy) worked there
 * Eventually, staff and the head of the library resigned / moved away. It declined after part of it was burned in 48 BC during Caesar's civil war
 * Kate Greenaway (1846 - 1901) = Victorian writer / children's book illustrator.
 * Her most famous book was Under the Window (1879)
 * cAMP receptor protein = Regulatory protein in bacteria, such as Escherichia coli *They are mostly involved in energy metabolism
 * Duros = Mexican snack made of puffed wheat and often flavored with chilli and lime
 * Chicharrón = Snack with a similar consistency but made of pork belly or other meat
 * Historical capitals of China = Beijing, Nanjing, Luoyang and Xi'an (Chang'an)
 * Cheyne–Stokes respiration = Abnormal deep / fast breathing that slows gradually and stops (apnea). The pattern repeats, with each cycle usually taking 30 seconds to 2 minutes
 * In music of the common practice period, cadences are divided into four main types, according to their harmonic progression: authentic (typically perfect authentic or imperfect authentic), half, plagal, and deceptive
 * Cadence comes from the Latin for 'falling'
 * Crotalus viridis = Prairie rattlesnake AKA Western rattlesnake
 * Crotalus horridus = Timber rattlesnake AKA Canebrake rattlesnake
 * A timber rattlesnake is famously featured on the Gadsden flag
 * The Gadsen flag is considered on of the US' first flags (adopted in 1778) and is associated with the American Revolution. It was used by the Continental Marines as an early motto flag, along with the Moultrie flag
 * It was designed by Christopher Gadsden
 * Nemo me impune lacessit (No one provokes me with impunity) = Latin motto of the Royal Stuart dynasty of Scotland
 * Monticello = Thomas Jefferson's 5,000 acres plantation near Virginia
 * At Jefferson's direction, he was buried on the grounds, in an area now designated as the Monticello Cemetery
 * It is an example of Jeffersonian architecture; heavily inspired by the classical Greeks and often using lots of octagonal forms
 * Tatler = British magazine for upper / upper middle class. Founded by Clement King Shorter in 1901
 * Retractor = Surgical instrument used to hold back underlying organs and tissues so that body parts under the incision may be accessed
 * Types of retractor include Hohmann, Lahey, Senn, Blair, Ragnell, Volkman, Jackson, Crile, Little, Kelly, Deaver, Doyen, Parker, Ribbon, Almo, Gelpi, Gutow, Weitlaner, Adson and Balfour

FR 01/11/19
 * The Cowboy State (Wyoming) is home to only two (2) sets of escalators, both of them located in banks in the city of Casper
 * Netflix was founded in 1997. A year before Google
 * Polar + Grizzly bears = 'Grolar bears'
 * Polar bear jail = Jail in Churchill, Manitoba
 * Canada (38m) is smaller than California (40m)
 * Paris Charles de Gaulle to Reunion (CDG-RUN) 9,349 km (5,809 mi) is the longest domestic flight
 * 13 people = one tonne
 * SOS is three fast taps, three long taps and then another three fast taps
 * Paradoxical undressing = When you are suffering from lethal hypothermia and remove all your clothes, as if you are burning up, when you're actually freezing to death
 * People having a heart attack should chew a single full-sized 325-mg tablet of aspirin

TU 05/11/19
 * Bristol Bus Boycott = 1963 boycott lasting for four months. The Bristol Omnibus Company eventually backed down and overturned their discriminative policies against 'coloureds'
 * Keystone species = A species having a disproportionately large effect on its natural environment relative to its abundance - e.g secretive apex predators like the jaguar or snow leopard
 * The Kelpies = Two 30m horse-head sculptures in Falkirk, Scotland, designed by Andy Scott
 * Maquette = A scale model / rough draft of a full sculpture
 * Hazel Reeves = LSE-educated British sculptor, famous for her statue of Sir Nigel Gresley, (designer of steam locomotives Flying Scotsman and Mallard), unveiled at London King's Cross railway station on 6 April 2016
 * She also did 'Rise up, women' (statue of suffragette Emmeline Pankhurst) in Manchester
 * Cleavage = The tendency of a mineral to break along flat planar surfaces as determined by the structure of its crystal lattice
 * Fracture = Any other kind of rock seperation
 * Aspasia = Influential immigrant in classical-era Athens, who was a lover of Pericles. Little is known about her life

TU 12/11/19
 * Alfred Russel Wallace (1823 - 1913) = British naturalist who independently conceived the theory of evolution through natural selection
 * Wallace Line = The divide spliting the Asiatic species in 'Wallacea' and the Asian and Australian species towards the Australian side
 * "Veni, vidi, Deus vicit" ("I came, I saw, God conquered") = Phrase used by John III Sobieski at the Battle of Vienna (1683)
 * After his victories over them, the Ottomans called Sobieski the "Lion of Lechistan"; and the Pope hailed him as the savior of Christendom
 * Lechia = The original name of Poland
 * Zapotec civilization = An indigenous pre-Columbian civilization that flourished in the Valley of Oaxaca. It means "inhabitants of the place of sapote"
 * They developed one of the first writing systems in Mesoamerica
 * Chogha Zanbil (in Khuzestan Province, Iran) = One of the few existing ziggurats outside Mesopotamia
 * Ornithology (composition) = 1946 jazz standard by Charlie Parker based on his nickname ('bird')
 * Reynard the Fox = Classic European fable about a trickster anthropomorphic red fox. His main enemy is his uncle, a wolf called Isengrim
 * Tibert the Cat is another main character and was the inspiration for Romeo & Juliet's Tybalt (AKA the Prince of cats)
 * Reynard was going to get a Disney movie but Walt deemed him too devious to be portrayed as a hero. The character designes were later used for Robin Hood (1973)
 * Mount Etna = Active stratovolcano on the east coast of Sicily, Italy. It is 3,326m high, one of the biggest in Europe and is one of the world's most active volcanoes (almost in a constant state of activity)
 * Diprotodon ('two forward teeth') = The largest known marsupial to have ever lived. It looked like a giant wombat
 * Glyptodon = Giant armadillo, weighing as much as a Volkswagen Beetle (+ similar size). It had a rough, spiny tail suggesting it used it to fight with other members of the species
 * Visigoths = Western branch of the goths
 * Trajan = Roman emperor (98 - 117) who presided over the greatest military expansion in Roman history, leading the empire to attain its maximum territorial extent by the time of his death
 * He rebuild Rome and left enduring landmarks such as Trajan's Forum, Trajan's Market and Trajan's Column
 * He was succeeded by his cousin Hadrian, whom Trajan supposedly adopted on his deathbed
 * To convert celsius to kelvin, add 273: T(K) = T(°C) + 273.15
 * Ely Cathedral = Cathedral in Ely, Cambridgeshire famous for its central octagonal tower. This came about from a disaster when the previous tower collapsed
 * Nabla symbol (∇) = Inverted triangle / inverted delta. It derives from the Hellenistic Greek word νάβλα (for a Phoenician harp)
 * Naga fireball = Phenomenon said to be seen annually on the Mekong River. Glowing balls are alleged to naturally rise from the water high into the air
 * They're attributed to the Phaya Naga (a mythical serpent believed to live in the Mekong)
 * The sun's corona is much, uch hotter than its surface (by a factor of 150 - 450). No consensus on why
 * Raëlism = UFO religion founded by Claude Vorilhon (AKA Raël) in 1974, believeing that life on Earth was scientifically created by a species of extraterrestrial human scientists, which they call the "Elohim".
 * Vorilhon also founded Clonaid, Canada in 1997 and Dr. Brigitte Boisselier claimed the first baby (Eve) was cloned there in 2002
 * Their logo is a swastika embedded on the Star of David

SA 16/11/19
 * Crocodiles have the most powerful recorded bite force due to the enormous jaw-closing muscles (pterygoid)
 * The megalodon went extinct 2.6m years ago but is eastimated to have had a bite strong enough to crush a car. It is estimated to be between 100,000N - 200,000N psi compared to the crocodile's 22,000N psi
 * Humans' bite force is ~800N psi
 * It is speculated that the giant sperm whale (Livyatan) could have had an even stronger bite. The full name of this species is 'Livyatan melvillei', named after the Moby Dick author, Herman Melville
 * 1kg is ~10N (9.81)

TU 19/11/19
 * Rowlatt Act AKA Black Act = Act passed in Delhi in 1919, effectively authorizing the government to imprison any person suspected of terrorism living in British India for up to two years without a trial
 * Passed on the recommendations of the Rowlatt Committee and named after its president, British judge Sir Sidney Rowlatt
 * It was condemned by Gandhi and Jinnah (Jinnah resigned from the Imperial legislative council in protest against the act)
 * Bushranger = Early Australian convicts who used the Australian bush as a refuge to hide from the authorities
 * Ned Kelly was the most famous bushranger but others include his friend Joe Byrne (designed Kelly's gang armour), Captain Moonlite and Moondyne Joe (escaped from prison multiple times),
 * Larrikin = Australian for 'mischievous youngster'
 * Carrie Nation (1846 - 1911) = Woman who protested alcohol pre-prohibition. She attacked alchol-serving places with a hatchet
 * She was a member of the temperance movement (anti-alcohol promoters of teetotalism)
 * The flag of Equatorial Guinea was adopted on August 21, 1979 (a month before Nguema's execution). The six stars on the map represent the country's mainland and five islands
 * Under Nguema's rule, the flag consisted of several tools, a sword and a chicken. It now consists of a silver shield and silk-cotton tree
 * Sigma bonds (σ bonds) = strongest type of covalent chemical bond
 * Fiorello! = 1959 Broadway musical about Fiorello H. LaGuardia, discussing how he took on the Tammany Hall political machine
 * Sunday in the Park with George = 1984 Broadway musical inspired by George Seurat's 1884 painting A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte
 * Joggins = Rural area in Nova Scotia. Famour for the Joggins Fossil Cliffs
 * Hiro Murai = American filmmaker born in Japan. He directed 'This is America' in 2019. Also often works with Earl Sweatshirt
 * Joseph von Fraunhofer (1787 - 1826) = Inventor of the spectroscope and the person who discovered the dark absorption lines in the spectrum of the sun now known as Fraunhofer lines
 * Fraunhofer Society = German research organization with 72 institutes spread throughout Germany
 * Stephen Dedalus = James Joyce's literary alter ego appearing in A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916) and Ulysses (1922)
 * Daedalus was originally the skillful craftsman who built the labyrinth for King Minos and father of Icarus
 * May Fourth Movement = Anti-imperialist movement growing out of student protests in Beijing on 04/05/1919
 * The Chinese were annoyed at their government allowing Japan to retain terriroties in Shandong that had been surrendered by Germany after the Siege of Tsingtao in 1914
 * Whitewater controversy = Political controversy of the 1990s, questioning the Clintons' real estate investments and their associates, Jim and Susan McDougal
 * Jim Guy Tucker (Gov of Arkansas) retired as a result of being convicted of fraud

11/12/19
 * Splendid isolation = The 19th-century British diplomatic practice of avoiding permanent alliances, particularly under Lord Salisbury between 1885 and 1902
 * The term was coined by the Canadian politician George Eulas Foster
 * Battle of Pinkie Cleugh (1547) = The first battle of the modern brittish isles and the last pitched battle between Scottish and English armies
 * A pitched / set piece battle is where both sides choose the time and place (e.g. the Battle of Culloden in 1746)
 * Champion warfare = Where the best soldiers on each side ('champions') decide the battle. Often used as a plot device in epic poetry - e.g. the Iliad
 * Helen Quinn = Australian particle physicist, who contrinuted to the Peccei-Quinn theory which implies symmetry between matter-antimatter. She has also tried to work on the GUT (grand unified theory (for the three types of particle interactions - strong, electromagnetic and weak)
 * Fenrir is a moon of saturn
 * Riyadh means 'garden' in Arabic
 * 'Mantra' = Ancient Sanskrit word meaning 'instrument of thought'
 * Marco Polo Bridge Incident = The start of the Second Sino-Japanese War, a 1937 battle between China and Japan
 * Collagen comes from the Greek 'kolla' ('glue')
 * Michel Gondry = French director known for Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (2004). He has also directed several music videos for Bjork ('Army of Me', 'Human Behaviour', 'Isobel' etc.) and did 'Knives out' for Radiohead
 * Haruko Obokata = Former Japanese stem-cell biologist who claimed to have developed a radical and remarkably easy way to make stimulus-triggered acquisition of pluripotency (STAP) cells that could be grown into tissue for use anywhere in the body
 * It was discorvered to be a fraud when several edited images were found in her papers
 * Schön scandal = In the early 2000s, Jan Hendrik Schön briefly rose to prominence after a series of apparent breakthroughs with semiconductors that were later discovered to be fraudulent.
 * Hwang Woo-suk = S. Korean veterinarian who fabricated many experiments regarding stem cell research in the mid-2000s. He falsely claimed to have cloned stem cells and was found to have used eggs from his grad students and the black market
 * Ahmad Shah Durrani (1722 - 1772) = AKA Ahmad Shāh Bābā; Founder of Afghanistan
 * Hematopoietic stem cell (HSCs) = Stem cells that give rise to other blood cells in a bone marrow process called haematopoiesis
 * Haematopoiesis = The process by which all mature blood cells are produced. It must balance enormous production needs (the average person produces more than 500 billion blood cells every day) with the need to regulate the number of each blood cell type in the circulation
 * Perseids = Meteor shower named after the sons of Perseus
 * Caprese salad = Simple Italian salad made of mozzarella, tomatoes and basil to represent the Italian flag
 * It is usually served as an antipasto (starter), not a contorno (side dish)
 * Mantissa AKA Significand = The part of a logarith after the demical point
 * Wacław Sierpiński (1882 - 1969) = Polish mathematician famous for three fractals: the Sierpiński triangle, the Sierpiński carpet and the Sierpiński curve

TH 12/12/19
 * The 'teapot' is the most famous asterism of the Sagittarius
 * An asterism is a pattern of stars
 * Zapaleri = Volcano whose summit is the tripoint of the borders of Argentina, Bolivia and Chile. It is a major source of obsidian
 * Plantigrade = Type of locomotion where animals (including humans) walk with the toes and metatarsals flat on the ground
 * Digitigrade = Walking on tip toes - e.g. cats, wolves etc.
 * Unguligrade = Walking on the nails or hooves, like ungulates
 * 'Niche' comes from the old French for 'to make a nest' ('nichier')
 * Brimham Rocks = 30ft balancing rock formations on Brimham Moor in North Yorkshire. The rocks have been given various names including the Sphinx, the Watchdog, the Camel, the Turtle and the Dancing Bear
 * There were four Uk PMs in 1834. They were Prime Minister – Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey (Whig) (until 16 July); William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne (Whig) (starting 16 July, until 14 November); Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington (Tory) (starting 14 November, until 10 December); Robert Peel (Conservative) (starting 10 December)
 * Tunisian Revolution AKA Jasmine Revolution = A 2010 - 2011 3 week campaign of civil resisitance. It led to the ousting of longtime president Zine El Abidine Ben Ali and triggered the wider Arab Spring
 * Mohamed Bouazizi = Tunisian street vendor who self-immolated and started off the revolution and wider Arab Spring. He did so after his wares were confiscated by an official
 * Brecon Beacons = South Welsh mountain range
 * Black Mountains, Wales = Group of hills spread across parts of Powys and Monmouthshire. They are the easternmost of the four ranges of hills that comprise the Brecon Beacons National Park
 * Axiom of choice = The idea that, given any collection of bins (each having at leas one object), you acn pick exaclt one object from each bin, even if the collection is infinte
 * Ernst Zermelo (1871 - 1953) = German mathematician who worked on set theory

MO 23/12/19
 * Famous characters with Titian hair include Dana Scully and Kim Possible
 * Kompromat = Russian portmanteau term for 'comprising material' - i.e. of politicians
 * Arachnoid = Large geological structure resembling a spider web, found on Venus
 * Largo al factotum = Aria from The Barber of Seville by Gioachino Rossini, sung by Robin Williams in Mrs. Doubtfire
 * Unreliable narrator = A term coined in 1961 by Wayne C. Booth in his book 'The Rhetoric of Fiction'
 * Charles Fourier (1772 - 1837) = French philosopher who coined the word 'feminism' in 1837
 * Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge = Largest suspension bridge in the Western hemisphere - connecting Brooklyn and Staten Island
 * Great Belt Fixed Link = The longest suspension bridge outside Asia (in Denmark)
 * The largest suspension bridge in the world is in Japan (Akashi Kaikyō Bridge)
 * Púca = Shape-shifting creature in Celtic folklore, that can bring either good or bad luck
 * The Atacama Desert in Chile is commonly known as the driest nonpolar place in the world
 * The Hawking Index is a Mathematical Measure of when people give up on books, based on Kindle data

31/12/19
 * Sartorius muscle = Largest in the human body - it wraps around your thighs AKA the honeymoon muscle
 * It aids in knee and hip flexion, as in sitting or climbing; abducts and laterally rotates thigh
 * Sartorius comes from the Latin for tailor
 * It can be inflamed through Pes anserine bursitis
 * Carole Cadwalladr = British journalist who exposed the Facebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandal in 2018
 * Loganberry = Hybrid of a blackberry (Rubus ursinus) and raspberry (Rubus idaeus)
 * It was created in 1881 by American judge and horticulturist James Harvey Logan (1841–1928)
 * Inigo Jones (1573 - 1652) = English architect in the early modern period, and the first to employ Vitruvian rules of proportion and symmetry in his buildings
 * He designed the layout for Covent Garden Square and built Queen's House, which was the first building in England designed in a pure classical style
 * Palladian architecture = Architecture derived from and inspired by the designs of Andrea Palladio
 * Palladio (1508 - 1580) was greatly inspired by Vitruvius. He wrote of his ideas on architecture in I quattro libri dell'architettura (The four books of architecture)
 * In Britain, Palladianism was briefly in vogue during the 17th century, but ended with the English Civil War and the following austerity
 * Little Ice Age (LIA) = A period of cooling between the 16th and 19th centuries. Although it was not a true ice age, the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939.
 * Willard Libby (1908 - 1980) = American physical chemist who developed radiocarbon dating in 1949
 * Anita Brookner (1928 - 2016) = English art historian and winner of the 1984 Man Booker Prize for Hotel du Lac

MO 13/01/20
 * Griot = A West African historian, storyteller, praise singer, poet, or musician - Dave Chappelle's childhood nickname
 * Tonsil stones (tonsillolits) = They are calcifications that form in the crypts of the palatal tonsils.
 * Tonsils are filled with crevices where debris (bacteria and other materials, including dead cells and mucus) can become trapped. Tonsilloliths form when this trapped debris accumulates

WE 12/02/20
 * Hiemal/hibernal = Winter
 * Vernal = Spring
 * Estival = Summer
 * Autumnal = Autumn
 * Bingo nicknames include Kelly's Eye (1), One little duck / me & you (2), Cup of Tea / you and me (3), Knock at the door (4), Man alive (5), Tom Mix (6), Lucky (7), Garden gate (8), Doctor's orders (9 [as a number 9 laxative pill was given by army doctors in WWII]), [Boris' / current PM's] Den (10), Legs eleven (11)

WE 19/02/20
 * Presbyphonia = How the voice changes with age
 * Lagniappe = A gift given with a purchase - e.g. the 13th free one in a bakers dozen

TU 23/03/20
 * Tyranny of averages = The idea that the mean does not provide any information about the shape of the probability distribution of a data set (how it will be going forward)
 * Zero stroke = Disorder where those living during the Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic (1921 - 24) were said to go crazy and kept writing endless rows of 00000000....

TU 31/03/20
 * Squid brains are doughnut shaped, and their oesophagus runs through it. If a squid eats something too big it can get brain damage
 * 10-20% of U.S. power outages are caused by squirrels
 * Gary Numan is 13 days older than Gary Oldman
 * Wyoming has 2 escalators, more cows than people and around 6 people per sq mile
 * The greyhound is the only breed of dog mentioned in the bible
 * A golf ball has 352 dimples
 * A coin toss is not a 50-50 chance .There is a 0.000016% chance that it lands sideways
 * A doubly landlocked country is one that is surrounded on all sides by landlocked countries (2 steps away from international waters). They are Liechtenstein and Uzbekistan
 * Kevin Hines = Man who tried to jump of the GGB in 2000. He survived and broke his back and a sea lion kept him afloat until the coast guard arrived. He now works as an ant-suicide campaigner
 * The King of Hearts is the only King without a moustache. Cards used to be made using wooden stamps. Over time the wooden blocks wore down and the details vanished. When copying these cards, manufacturers started skipping the moustache, because it wasn’t visible anymore.
 * This is also the reason why king of hearts looks like he is stabbing himself in the head. Originally he had an axe, but at some point the axe head disappeared and the handle turned into a dagger, which like he's killing himself
 * Twinkies are 68% air
 * There are more plastic lawn flamingos than real ones
 * John Chivington (1821 - 1894) = Leader of the Sand Creek massacre (1864). An estimated 70–163 peaceful Cheyenne and Arapaho – about 2/3s of whom were women and children – were killed and mutilated by his troops.
 * They took scalps and other body parts as battle trophies, including human fetuses and male and female genitalia. Chivington said "Damn any man who sympathizes with Indians! ... I have come to kill Indians, and believe it is right and honorable to use any means under God's heaven to kill Indians. ... Kill and scalp all, big and little; nits make lice"
 * Tree That Owns Itself = White oak tree in Athens, Georgia that has legal ownership of itself and of all land within eight feet (2.4 m) of its base
 * James Forrestal = First United States Secretary of Defense. After Truman asked for his resignation, he got depressed and jumped from his balcony in 1949. It was said that his rigid Catholic upbringing / harsh discipline gave him self-doubt that was never overcome by his many achievements
 * There's no “d” in “refrigerator” because it’s a loanword from Latin. There is a “d” in “fridge” because, as a short word with a short vowel, it’s subject to the original set of Germanic spelling rules rather than our Latinate spelling rules

FR 10/04/20 - "Lordy, Jesus, please don’t let them put my child in jail." asking the librarian, "What’s the problem?“
 * The Mongols killed so many people during the height of their conquests that it caused a global cooldown (tonnes of CO2 left the atmosphere)
 * The Hu = Mongolian rock band who implement the traditional horsehead fiddle (Morin khuur)
 * JFK’s sister (Rosemary Kennedy) was lobotomized because her father found her “too impulsive”. Her mother absolutely was against it being done, but he had it done in secret. She could no longer speak intelligibly
 * R0 (Basic reproduction number, or 'R nought') = How many people an infected person infects - e.g. Polio's is 3 to 5
 * In 1959, police were called to a segregated library in S. Carolina when a 9yr-old black boy refused to leave. His mother was also called, saying:

- ”He wanted to check out the books and, you know, your son shouldn’t be down here”

- And the police officer said, "You know, why don’t you just give the kid the books?"

- And his mother said, "He’ll take good care of them.“

- So, the librarian reluctantly handed over the books. And then his mother said, "What do you say?“

- And the boy answered, “Thank you, ma’am.”
 * He (Ronald McNair) later got a PhD in Physics from MIT, and died in 1986, one of the astronauts aboard the space shuttle Challenger. The library that refused to lend him books is now named after him
 * It was intended that McNair would record his saxophone solo on board the Challenger, which would have made McNair's solo the first original piece of music to have been recorded in space
 * Harry Reichenbach (1882 - 1931) = US press agent and publicist who promoted a woman called "Sober Sue" who never smiled. He offered $1,000 to any NY comedian who could make her laugh but she actually had Möbius syndrome — i.e. paralyzed face muscles — so she was incapable of laughter
 * Frank Rosolino (1926-1978) = Jazz musician from Detroit, MI who shot both of his sons as they slept. One died instantly; the other survived, but was blinded
 * Rosolino shot himself in the head immediately after
 * Chullachaki = A mythical short and ugly forest creature of the Amazon. He can shape shift to lure people deep into the jungle

TU 14/04/20
 * Male puppies playing with female pups will often be chivalrous and let the females win, even if the males have a physical advantage
 * Dogs convey they are 'just playing' rather than fighting by sneezing
 * Cows have best friends and when paired together, their heart rates are significantly lower and they experience less stress
 * Germany has toad fences to keep them from crossing the roads and getting run over. At the end of the day somebody comes by and gathers the toads and helps them cross the road
 * The last time Lichtenstein went to war - in 1886 they sent out 80 men and returned with 81 because the soldiers made a friend
 * Children who are deaf, and raised by deaf parents will sign repetitive sounds and words at about the same rate hearing babies acquire language (i.e. learn at the same speed and produce the sign-equivalent of 'goo-goo-ga-ga' etc. at the same age
 * Amanda Barrie played Cleopatra in Carry On Cleo (1964), and later was Alma Halliwell in Coronation Street
 * Every 'c' in Pacific Ocean is pronounced differently
 * For ordering his favourite beverages on demand, LBJ had four buttons installed in the Oval Office: Coffee, Tea, Coke, and Fresca
 * (DEF) Melange = A disordered mixture of things
 * (DEF) Verdure = A greenish lush
 * (DEF) Raiment = Clothing / dress
 * (DEF) Noisome = Hurtful or noxious to health / unwelcome
 * (DEF) Mien = A specific facial expression
 * (DEF) Disjunctive = Not connected / separated
 * (DEF) Mammon = The desire for wealth, often personified as a spirit
 * (DEF) Seamy = Corrupt
 * (DEF) Prurient = Lustful - Uneasy with desire; itching; especially, having a lascivious anxiety or propensity
 * (DEF) Adumbrate = To give a brief outline of something or foreshadow it
 * (DEF) Rumpus = A noisy quarrel
 * (DEF) Inveigle = To win someone over with flattery
 * (DEF) Tureen = A broad, deep serving dish used for serving soup or stew
 * (DEF) Chivvy = To rush someone along, or to sneak up on someone / chase or harass someone
 * (DEF) Dowdy = Plain dress
 * (DEF) Awry = Askew, a bit off, perverted
 * (DEF) Welter = A general confusion / muddle, or (as a verb) to roll
 * (DEF) Redolent = Smelling nice, a sweet scent
 * (DEF) Impolitic = Unadvisable, unwise and not in accordance with good policy
 * (DEF) Epigone = A follower / disciple
 * (DEF) Captious = Having a nitpicky attitude, wanting to capture faults - often unreasonably
 * (DEF) Celerity = Speed / swiftness
 * (DEF) Bibulous = Drinking a lot
 * (DEF) Tricorn = A three sided had, often worn by pirates
 * (DEF) Tenebrous = Dark / gloomy
 * (DEF) Bruit = An abnormal sound heard during auscultation or rumours and hearsay
 * (DEF) Embonpoint = Plump / voluptious
 * (DEF) Pabulum = Food or fodder taken in by animals / plants
 * (DEF) Pother = A state of commotion
 * (DEF) Valetudinarian = Sickly or being overly concerned with one's health
 * (DEF) Cenacle = A dining room, especially one on an upper floor (traditionally the room in which the Last Supper took place)
 * (DEF) Legerdemain = Slight of hand or deceitfulness
 * (DEF) Cantle = The raised curved part at the back of a horse's saddle
 * (DEF) Regnant = Dominant, reigning, ruling
 * (DEF) Terpsichorean = Relating to dancing
 * (DEF) Clericy = An elite group of intellectuals
 * (DEF) Deracinate = Literally: to pull up by the roots. To force (people) from their homeland to a new or foreign location
 * (DEF) Tatterdemalion = A person with tattered clothes
 * (DEF) Williwaw = A strong gust of cold wind, often used as a nautical term
 * (DEF) Caitiff = A despicable person
 * (DEF) Opsimath = A person who learns late in life
 * (DEF) Pule = A melancholic whine
 * (DEF) Sparge = To scatter / sprinkle / spray
 * Hypnopompic = The state of consciousness before becoming completely awake
 * Harraga (from the Arabic 'those who burn') = North African migrants who illegally immigrate to Europe(especially from the Maghreb). It often refers to men aged 20 - 35

WE 15/04/20
 * Hiawatha = Leader / founder of the Iroquois (a powerful Native Indian confederacy - he was the leader from the Mohawk tribe). He was known as a skilled orator who promoted peace, despite the murder of his own wife and daughters by his enemies
 * The Iroquois consisted of 5 tribes in total: Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayugaa, and Seneca
 * Napoleon's last word was 'Joséphine' - from "France, the army, the head of the army, Joséphine." ("France, armée, tête d'armée, Joséphine.")
 * Other famous last words include:
 * "Oh!" - Spencer Percival (1812)
 * "I want nothing but death" - Jane Austen (1817)
 * "Pity, pity - too late!" - Ludwig van Beethoven (1827)
 * "Perhaps it is best" - John Tyler (1862)
 * "I am not the least afraid to die" - Charles Darwin (1882)
 * "Go on, get out! Last words are for fools who haven't said enough!" - Karl Marx (1883)
 * "Damn. This is funny" - Doc Holliday (1887) [after a nurse refused him whiskey]
 * "Take away these pillows, I won't need them any longer" - Lewis Carroll (1898)
 * "My wallpaper and I are fighting a duel to the death. One or the other of us has to go" - Oscar Wilde (1900)
 * "So little done, so much to do" - Cecil Rhodes (1902)
 * "Doctor, you have science, I have faith" - Dmitri Mendeleev (1907)
 * "Never again allow a woman to hold the supreme power in the State... [and] be careful not to allow eunuchs to meddle in government affairs" - Empress Dowager Cixi (1908)
 * "Give me my glasses" - Mark Twain (1910)
 * "But the peasants...how do the peasants die?" - Leo Tolstoy (1910)
 * "Swing low, sweet chariot" - Harriet Tubman (1913)
 * "I thought this was the most beautiful spot in the world, and now I know it" - W.P. Ker (1923) [to his hiking companions on the Pizzo Bianco before suffering a heart attack]
 * "Mother is the best bet" - Dutch Schultz (1935)
 * "I think I'm going to make it" - Richard A. Loeb (1936) [after being slashed 56 times with a razor in a prison fight]
 * "God damn the whole fuckin’ world and everyone in it but you, Carlotta" - W.C. Fields (1946)
 * "I'm going over the valley" - Babe Ruth (1948)
 * "At fifty, everyone has the face he deserves" - George Orwell (1950)
 * "I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share, it is time to go. I will do it elegantly" - Albert Einstein (1955) [refusing surgery the day before his death]
 * "Goodnight my kitten" - Ernest Hemmingway (1961) [before suicide by shotgun]
 * "I'm bored with it all" - Winston Churchill (1965)
 * "Drink to me" - Pablo Picasso (1973)
 * "In keeping with Channel 40's policy of bringing you the latest in blood and guts and in living color, you are going to see another first - an attempted suicide" - Christine Chubbuck (1974)
 * "I'm going to the bathroom to read" - Elvis Presley (1977)
 * "What do you think I'm gonna do? Blow my brains out?" - Terry Kath (1978) [before accidentally shooting himself]
 * "Where is my clock?" - Salvador Dali (1989)
 * "Ow, fuck!" - Roald Dahl (1990) [after a nurse pricked him with a needle]
 * "Pee-pee" - Freddie Mercury (1991)
 * "Yolanda...158" - Selena Quintanilla-Pérez (1995) [naming the shooter and hotel room number]
 * "I'll finally get to see Marilyn" - Joe DiMaggio (1999)
 * "Hey, let's go for a drive" - Paul Walker (2013)
 * "I can't breathe" (x11) - Eric Garner (2013)
 * "A life is like a garden. Perfect moments can be had, but not preserved, except in memory. LLAP" - Leonard Nimoy (2015)

SU 19/04/20
 * Exponential growth - If you fold a piece of paper in half 45 times, it would be thick enough to reach the moon
 * “umop apisdn” is “upside down” upside down
 * November 2, 2000 was the last time all humans were on the planet together. Since then at least one person has remained on the international space station
 * In 2009, John Edward Jones died after being trapped in the Nutty Putty Cave, Utah for 28 hours. Rescuers concluded that it would be too dangerous to attempt to retrieve his body; the landowner and Jones' family came to an agreement that the cave should be permanently closed with the body sealed inside
 * The great silence = An idea formed off the back of the Fermi Paradox — everyone else out there is being quiet and not transmitting because they know of some danger that we are unaware of, and they don’t want it to find them
 * We add ~200,000 new humans to our population per day (360k births, 150k deaths)
 * DSM-5 = 2013 release of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
 * Computus = A calculation that determines the calendar date of Easter
 * Korobeiniki = 19th century Russian song, used as the Tetris theme
 * Mount Shishaldin = Alaskan volcano and the most symmetrical mountain

TU 21/04/20
 * There are 5 main positions in ballet - First position (Heels together, and toes going outwards), Second position (same as first but with feet separated) The third fourth and fifth positions are all variations of crossed-feet, where the heel of the one foot is near the arch of the other
 * Aplomb = An unwavering stability maintained during a vertical pose or movement
 * Arabesque = Where one leg is on the floor and the other is stretched out behind. Both legs must be straight
 * Ballon = The appearance of being lightweight and light-footed while jumping
 * Barre = A stationary handrail that provides support for people during various types of exercise. Barres are used extensively in ballet training and warm up exercises, where such exercises are commonly referred to as barre work
 * Battement = An alternating side-to-side movement of the working (non-supporting) leg
 * Divertissement = Music genre, often incorporated into ballet. Similar to the Italian word Divertimento
 * Pas de deux = 2 dancers performing together (often a man and woman doing ballet)
 * You can also have a Pas de trois or Pas de quatre
 * Pointe technique = Supporting all your body weight on your toes. It resulted from a desire for female dancers to appear weightless and Sylph-like
 * The stegosaurus was as old to the tyrannosaurus rex as the T-Rex is to us
 * Elohim = Jewish God
 * Binnacle = A waist-high case or stand on the deck of a ship, where navigational instruments are placed for easy and quick reference (and protections)
 * The day Michael Jackson's hair caught on fire was the exact middle of his life, to the day
 * Cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrenes (sterane) = Basic structure of steroids
 * İsmet Güney (1923 - 2009) = Designer of the Flag of Cyprus. He was promised £20 a year by Makarios III but never received anything
 * The flag came out of a 1960 design competition. Cyprus previously used the Greek and Turkish flags and as such, the rules states that you could not include blue or red
 * The white background and the green olive branches represent peace between the two communities on the island (Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots)
 * The 'copper' colour (actually gold) chosen for the map represents the origin of the country's name
 * In 2008, Kosovo became the only other country to have a map on its flag
 * Jamaica is the only flag not to feature red, white or blue
 * Previously, Libya and Mauritania had green flags but changed in 2011 and 2017 respectively
 * Granville Sharp = Founder of Freetown, Sierra Leone
 * The nearest capital to London is Brussels (197 mi)

MO 27/04/20
 * Amatonormativity = Elizabeth Brake's (Arizona State University professor of philosophy) term to describe the pressure to desire a monogamy, romance, and / or marriage
 * Sweat lodge = A dome shaped hut used by Native Americans for prayer and healing. The ceremony is only led by elders who know the associated language, songs, traditions, and safety protocols. Otherwise, the ceremony can be dangerous if performed improperly - e.g. people have died from dehydration
 * In 2009, during a 60-person New Age retreat organized by James Arthur Ray in Sedona, Arizona, three people died and 21 more became ill while attending an overcrowded and improperly set up sweat lodge
 * Ariadne's thread = Solving a problem by exploring multiple means (e.g. through an exhaustive application of logic to all available routes in a maze)
 * Black cat analogy = Analogy accounting for the differences between science and religion - used by atheists / scientists:
 * Philosophy is like being in a dark room and looking for a black cat.
 * Metaphysics is like being in a dark room and looking for a black cat that isn't there.
 * Theology is like being in a dark room and looking for a black cat that isn't there, and shouting "I found it!"
 * Science is like being in a dark room looking for a black cat while using a flashlight.
 * This can be related to the (French and English) proverb: "In the dark, all cats are grey."
 * Enchanted loom = Charles Scott Sherrington's view of activity in the cerebral cortex during sleep - "The great topmost sheet of the mass, that where hardly a light had twinkled or moved, becomes now a sparkling field of rhythmic flashing points with trains of traveling sparks hurrying hither and thither. The brain is waking and with it the mind is returning. It is as if the Milky Way entered upon some cosmic dance. Swiftly the head mass becomes an enchanted loom where millions of flashing shuttles weave a dissolving pattern, always a meaningful pattern though never an abiding one; a shifting harmony of subpatterns."
 * Explanatory gap = The idea that you can't convey a feeling by simply describing the physicality of it - e.g. saying "Pain is the firing of C fibers" is physiologically correct but doesn't help us understand how pain feels. Also see supervenience
 * Indra's net = A metaphor illustrating emptiness (Śūnyatā), dependent origination (Pratītyasamutpāda) and interpenetration in Buddhist philosophy
 * Tabula rasa = 'Blank slate' - the idea that people are born without built-in mental content and that all knowledge comes from experience
 * Thrownness (Geworfen) = Martin Heidegger's term describing how humans are 'thrown' into the world
 * The Doors used a similar idea in a verse of their song "Riders on the Storm" (1971): "Into this world we're thrown / Like a dog without a bone"
 * Paul Winchell (1922 - 2005) = US ventriloquist, comedian and actor
 * At age 13, he contracted polio. While recovering, he saw a magazine advertisement offering a ventriloquism kit for ten cents
 * His dummies were called Jerry Mahoney and Knucklehead Smiff
 * Winchell was the original voice of Tigger, Dick Dastardly and Gargamel from the Smurfs
 * He was a pre-med student at Columbia University
 * He also built and patented a mechanical artificial heart alongside Dr. Henry Heimlich
 * He worked on helping the starving Africans by developing a method to cultivate tilapia fish in tribal villages and small communities
 * His daughter is April Winchell (the voice of Disney's Clarabelle Cow (Horace Horsecollar's gf)
 * Balloonfest '86 = Event in Cleveland, Ohio that set a WR by releasing around 1.5m balloons
 * However, they drifted back over the city and caused huge disruption to traffic and airports
 * The coast guard was also disrupted and two boaters were later found drowned
 * Superior orders AKA The Nuremberg defense, just following orders, or, in German, Befehl ist Befehl ("an order is an order") = A plea where a subordinate asked to do something by a superior should not be deemed guilty
 * Hemihypertrophy / hemihyperplasia = Condition in which one side of the body or a part of one side of the body is larger than the other to an extent considered greater than the normal variation - e.g. one hand smaller than the other

TU 28/04/20
 * Margaux Hemingway (1954 - 1996) = 6ft supermodel and granddaughter of Ernest Hemingway who signed a million-dollar contract for Fabergé
 * When she learned that she was named after the wine, Château Margaux, which her parents drank on the night she was conceived, she changed the spelling from "Margot" to "Margaux"
 * Sister of Mariel Hemingway - they lived in Ketchum, Idaho (where their grandfather owned a farm and eventually killed himself)
 * The sisters acted together in Lipstick (1976)
 * Margaux struggled with a variety of disorders beginning in her teenage years, including alcoholism, depression, bulimia, and epilepsy - parts of her therapy for these was recorded and televised
 * Her decomposed body was found in her Santa Monica studio apartment in June 1996, having OD'd on phenobarbital at 42yo
 * She was the fifth person in four generations of her family to commit suicide
 * "I'm glad that this year, police finally solved the baffling murder or Magaux Hemmingway" - Norm on the Dennis Miller Show
 * "It's never too late to have a happy childhood" - said by Marial Hemingway on 'Road to Happiness' CBS video
 * Ernest Miller Hemingway (1899 - 1961) = US journalist, novelist, short-story writer, and sportsman who founded Iceberg theory (minimalist writing style where the facts float above water; the supporting structure and symbolism operate out of sight). He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954
 * He couldn't join the army due to poor eyesight but joined the Red Cross as an ambulance driver in Italy in 1917 (as an 18yo)
 * A few months later, he was wounded in both legs by mortar fire, remarking "When you go to war as a boy you have a great illusion of immortality. Other people get killed; not you ... Then when you are badly wounded the first time you lose that illusion and you know it can happen to you"
 * He was still able to assist Italian soldiers to safety, for which he received the Italian Silver Medal of Bravery. He spent 6 months in hospital recovering and befriended Eric Dorman-Smith
 * In his early 20s, he move to Paris where he met Gertrude Stein, James Joyce and Ezra Pound. He also met with Spanish artists like Pablo Picasso, Joan Miró and Juan Gris
 * Whilst there, he covered the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922) and saw the Great fire of Smyrna in September 1922
 * He got the nickname 'Papa' (even used by much older friends) and enjoyed being looked up to
 * He was one of the first to read a copy of The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald
 * This inspired him to start writing a novel (rather than journalism and short stories)
 * In 1926, he wrote The Sun Also Rises about Americans and Brits watching the running of the bulls at San Fermín
 * He believed bullfighting was "of great tragic interest, being literally of life and death"
 * In 1928, he left Paris with Pauline Pfeiffer (his second wife, who was pregnant). After his departure, Hemingway "never again lived in a big city"
 * He scarred his forehead in their Paris bathroom when he pulled a skylight down on his head thinking he was pulling on a toilet chain. When Hemingway was asked about the scar, he was reluctant to answer
 * In 1930, they spent the winters in Key West and summers in Wyoming, saying it was "the most beautiful country he had seen in the American West" and hunted deer, elk, and grizzly bear
 * In 1930, he got in a car crash and broke his writing arm that had to be bound together with kangaroo tendon
 * He bought a boat called Pilar in 1934 and sailed to the Caribbean - arriving first at Bimini (the westernmost district of the Bahamas)
 * In 1937, he went to cover the Spanish Civil War
 * In 1939, he took his boat to Cuba and lived in the Hotel Ambos Mundos in Havana whilst going through a divorce with Pauline
 * His third wife was war correspondent Martha Gellhorn, m. 1940
 * They lived at Finca Vigía and Hemingway spent summers in Ketchum, Idaho
 * Gellhorn inspired him to write his most famous novel For Whom the Bell Tolls, which he started in March 1939 and finished in July 1940
 * In 1945, Martha had been forced to cross the Atlantic in a ship filled with explosives because Hemingway refused to help her get a press pass on a plane, and she arrived in London to find him hospitalised with a concussion from a car accident. She was unsympathetic and called him a bully and told him that she was "through, absolutely finished"
 * His fourth wife was Mary Welsh Hemingway - he proposed on their third meeting
 * They married in 1946 and she had an ectopic pregnancy five months later
 * He was awarded a Bronze Star for reporting bravely during WWII and doing this despite being injured and hospitalised
 * Hemingway sank into depression as his literary friends began to die: William Butler Yeats and Ford Madox Ford (1939), F. Scott Fitzgerald (1940), Sherwood Anderson and James Joyce (1941) and Gertrude Stein (1946)
 * As such, he suffered from severe headaches, high blood pressure, weight problems, and eventually diabetes — much of which was also the result of previous accidents and many years of heavy drinking
 * In 1948, Mary and Ernest traveled to Venice and stayed there for several months
 * The following year, furious at the critical reception of Across the River and Into the Trees, he wrote the draft of The Old Man and the Sea in eight weeks, saying that it was "the best I can write ever for all of my life
 * This won him a Pulitzer Prize in 1952
 * In 1954, while in Africa, Hemingway was almost fatally injured in two successive plane crashes
 * He chartered a sightseeing flight over the Belgian Congo as a Christmas present to Mary. On their way to photograph Murchison Falls from the air, the plane hit a pole and crash landed. Hemingway had a head wound and Mary broke two ribs
 * The next day, attempting to reach medical care in Entebbe (Uganda), they boarded a second plane that exploded at take-off, with Hemingway suffering burns and another concussion, this one serious enough to cause leaking of cerebrospinal fluid
 * He spent the next few weeks recuperating and reading his erroneous obituaries
 * In October 1954, Hemingway received the Nobel Prize in Literature - he felt his obituaries had played a role in this being given to him
 * He became a celebrity. The Finca Vigia became crowded with guests and tourists, as Hemingway, beginning to become unhappy with life there, considered a permanent move to Idaho
 * In 1960, the Hemingways left Cuba for the last time, leaving art and manuscripts in a bank vault in Havana. After the 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion, the Finca Vigia was expropriated by the Cuban government, complete with Hemingway's collection of four to six thousand books
 * In 1960, he became seriously ill whilst visiting Spain, and believed himself to be on the verge of a breakdown. He went to New York where he refused to leave Mary's apartment, presuming that he was being watched
 * He returned to Idaho but worried about his taxes and that he would never return to Cuba to retrieve the manuscripts that he had left in a bank vault. *He became paranoid, thinking that the FBI was actively monitoring his movements in Ketchum (they were watching him, it later transpired)
 * He was checked into the Minnesota Mayo clinic where he had Electroconvulsive therapy, possibly for hypertension
 * In 1961, he was back in Ketchum, then back in hospital then, when back home shot himself with his favourite shotgun in the early morning hours of 02 July 1961 at 61yo
 * Mary was sedated and taken to the hospital, returning home the next day where she cleaned the house and saw to the funeral and travel arrangements
 * Hemingway's behaviour during his final years had been similar to that of his father before he killed himself; his father may have had the genetic disease hemochromatosis (inability to metabolize iron culminates in mental / physical deterioration)
 * His sister Ursula Hemingway and his brother Leicester Hemingway also killed themselves
 * Hemingway avoided complicated syntax. About 70 percent of the sentences are simple sentences — described as a childlike syntax without subordination
 * He often employed Polysyndeton (opposite of Asyndeton) to slow down the cadence - e.g. using several 'and's in place of commas
 * This could also convey immediacy
 * 3656 Hemingway = Planet discovered in 1978, named after EH
 * Similes from Norm - "I'll tell you something' about that Harlon Ellison though: I mean he's won more Hugos than anybody.. but I hear he's frutier than Carmen Miranda's hat" + "Hey listen man, I hear you're havin' more trouble with your cans than... Mamie Van Doren"
 * Harlan Ellison (1934 - 2018) = US writer known for New Wave speculative fiction
 * Robert Bloch (author of Psycho) said he was the "only living organism I know whose natural habitat is hot water"
 * He wrote I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream and A Boy and His Dog and married 5 times (all failed within a few years)
 * He would sometimes use Cordwainer Bird as a pseudonym (a tribute to Cordwainer Smith) - cordwainer means shoemaker
 * He would use this name when he felt unhappy of the work / his credited contribution
 * He stated that Terminator was inspired by his writings
 * He often argued and sued others - he was said to have assaulted Charles Platt and demanded extra payment for the Star Trek episodes he wrote
 * Carmen Miranda (1909 - 1955) AKA 'The Brazillian Bombshell' and 'The Lady in the tutti-frutti hat' = Brazillian samba singer, dancer and film star who was popular in the 1930s-50s. Known for her signature fruit hat
 * She was a hat maker in her younger days and was the main precursor to Brazil's Tropicália movement in the 1960s
 * She was the first S. American to get a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame
 * In her later years, she began drinking and smoking heavily - as well as taking amphetamines and barbiturates
 * She died after going to the bathroom during a party she was hosting. She collapsed with a fatal heart attack at 46yo - her body was flown back to Rio de Janeiro and Brazil declare a period of national mourning
 * She's burried in Rio, where the Carmen Miranda Museum opened in 1976
 * Mamie Van Doren = US actress, model & singer known for Untamed Youth (1957)
 * Producer Howard Hughes discovered MVD when she was crowned Miss Palm Springs. They dated for several years and Hughes placed her in several RKO films. She has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame
 * She married 5 times and dated many celebrities including Clark Gable, Howard Hughes, Johnny Carson, Elvis Presley, Burt Reynolds, Jack Dempsey, Steve McQueen and Clint Eastwood
 * Native Americans are called Indians because Christopher Columbus thought he had made it to India!
 * The name 'India' is originally derived from the name of the river Sinhu (Indus River) and has been in use in Persian and Greed since the 5th century BCE
 * Indus comes from the Sanskrit word 'Sindhu' - meaning 'river'
 * Lys Assia = Swiss singer and first to win a Eurovision Song Contest (with "Refrain" in 1956)
 * The UK Winners are Sandie Shaw (Puppet on a String, 1967), Lulu (Boom Bang-a-Bang, 1969 -- joint winner with Spain, Netherlands & France), Brotherhood of Man (Save Your Kisses for Me, 1976), Bucks Fizz (Making Your Mind Up, 1981) and Katrina and the Waves (Love Shine a Light, 1997)
 * While psychopaths are classified as people with little / no conscience, sociopaths have a limited, albeit weak, ability to feel empathy and remorse
 * Psychopathy is often genetic to some extent, sociopathy is often learned to some extent
 * A sociopath (hot-headed) will make it clear they do not care, a psychopath (cold-hearted) will pretend to care

WE 29/04/20
 * EH's The Old Man and the Sea (1952) -
 * "He no longer dreamed of storms, nor of women, nor of great occurrences, nor of great fish, nor fights, nor contests of strength, nor of his wife. He only dreamed of places now and of the lions on the beach. They played like young cats in the dusk and he loved them as he loved the boy"
 * "Now is no time to think of what you do not have. Think of what you can do with that there is"
 * "A man can be destroyed but not defeated"
 * "He did not say that because he knew if you said a good thing it might not happen"
 * "Every day is a new day. It is better to be lucky. But I would rather be exact. Then when luck comes you are"
 * "You did not kill the fish only to keep alive and to sell for food, he thought. You killed him for pride and because you are a fisherman. You loved him when he was alive and you loved him after. If you loved him, it is not a sin to kill him. Or is it more?"
 * "I have never seen or heard of such a fish. But I must kill him. I am glad we do not have to try to kill the stars. Imagine if each day a man must try to kill the moon, he thought. The moon runs away. . . . Then he was sorry for the great fish that had nothing to eat and his determination to kill him never relaxed in his sorrow for him. . . . There is no one worthy of eating him from the manner of his behaviour and his great dignity. I do not understand these things, he thought. But it is good that we do not have to try to kill the sun or the moon or the stars. It is enough to live on the sea and kill our true brothers"
 * Tiburon = Spanish for shark
 * Guanabacoa = Township in Eastern Havana. Famous for its Santería and home to the first African Cabildo in Havana
 * Cienfuegos = City on the south coast of Cuba. The name means '100 fires' but is actually named after José Cienfuegos, Captain General of Cuba (1816–19)
 * Gunwale = Top edge of the hull of a ship or boat
 * Skiff = Small fishing boats that usually have one-person or a small crew. "Ship" comes from the Old English "scip" - skiff has the same root
 * Skiffs have also been used for drug smuggling
 * Flor de la Mar ('Flower of the Sea') = 400-ton Portugese carrack that sank in 1511
 * Nobleman Afonso de Albuquerque was returning from the conquest of Malacca, bringing with him a large treasure trove for the Portuguese king, when the ship was lost off the coast of Sumatra
 * Celia Cruz (1925 - 2003) = Cuban singer known as 'La Guarachera de Cuba' and 'The Queen of Salsa'
 * In the 1960s, she collaborated with Tito Puente, recording her signature tune "Bemba colorá"
 * In 1999, Cruz was inducted into the International Latin Music Hall of Fame
 * She suffered from glioma (a very aggressive brain tumour), dying at 77yo shortly after recording her final album Regalo del Alma
 * Fundamental attribution error (FAE) = Believing that what people do reflects who they are
 * Famous 1926 births - Elizabeth II, Marilyn Monroe, Jimmy Savile, David Attenborough, Hugh Hefner, Fidel Castro, Andy Griffith)
 * Plateresque ('in the manner of a silversmith') = Late 15th century architectural style in Spain - especially seen in Salamanca
 * Churrigueresque = 17th century Spanish Baroque style of elaborate sculptural architecture - it was revived in California - e.g. Casa del Prado
 * Adetomyrma venatrix = The Dracula Ant: they feed on the blood of their young (from Madagascar and blind
 * Diving bell spider (Argyroneta aquatica) = The only type of spider that lives underwater. It traps a bubble of air around its body, breathing the trapped air
 * Wandering albatrosses (Diomedea exulans) pinpoint the remote island where they're nesting after flights of 100km + over the ocean. They do not rely on the earth's magnetic field - it is unknown how they acquired this ability
 * Cephalotes atratus are AKA 'the parachute ant' because they can steer their falls
 * Ants' terminal velocity is too small to do any damage (so they are immune to falls anyway, even from the Empire State Building)
 * Philoponella vicina = Species of Spider that wraps its prey in hundreds of metres of spider silk to crush it to death (instead of venom)
 * Paragordius tricuspidatus = Parasitic worm that infects crickets. If the cricket is eaten by a larger predator (a frog, toad etc.), it escapes out of the predators body and continues to live on
 * For the first month of their lives, newborn orca and newborn bottlenose dolphins remain sleepless 24 hours a day (as do their mothers)
 * Boulengerula taitana = Kenyan limbless amphibian that develops a thick skin so its young can eat it (without harming the parent)
 * When they sense a rising tide, the Red imported fire ant will join together to form a tide
 * They also display Necrophoresis (carrying the dead away). This is usually done by designated 'undertakers' that behave and develop differently to others to facilitate this behaviour
 * Lasius niger = Black garden ant
 * Mary Anderson (1866 – 1953) = Woman from Alabama who invented the windshield wiper blade in 1903
 * Also the name chosen by a drifter who was found dead in a Seattle hotel in 1996: "To Whom It May Concern. I have decided to end my life and no one is responsible for my death. Mary Anderson P.S. I have no relatives. You can use my body as you choose."

TH 30/04/20
 * Tapetum lucidum = Latin for 'bright tapestry' - a reflective layer of tissue behind the retina that helps animals see in the dark
 * It causes eyeshine
 * Cat' tapetum lucidum increases their vision by 44%
 * Some spiders also have tapetum lucidum
 * Most primates, including humans, lack a tapetum lucidum
 * Alice de Janzé (1899 - 1941) = US heiress (her family owned Armour and Company) who lived in Kenya as part of the Happy Valley set (a community of white expatriates in East Africa, notorious for their hedonistic lifestyle)
 * In 1927, she shot her lover Raymond de Trafford in a Paris railway station and then turned the gun on herself; they both survived
 * In 1941, she was one of several major suspects in the murder in Kenya of her friend and former lover Lord Erroll
 * After several previous suicide attempts, she died of a self-inflicted gunshot in September 1941
 * She left three suicide notes, including one for the police. The content of the letters was never publicly disclosed, fueling rumours that they containing revelations into the Errol murder. She also requested that her friends hold a cocktail party on her grave
 * She was portrayed by Sarah Miles in White Mischief (1987)
 * Abakuá = A secret society described as an Afro-Cuban version of Freemasonry. It is an exclusively-male association with a complex mythology that informs its rites and traditions
 * Belkis Ayón = Cuban printmaker who specialized in black & white collagraphy relating to Abakuá. At 32yo, in 1999, she shot herself with no note
 * Ingrid Jonker (1933 - 1965) = SA poet who angrily denounced the South African Government's racial policies and the increasing censorship of literature. She has reached iconic status in post-Apartheid SA and is often compared with Sylvia Plath and Marilyn Monroe
 * Her father was appointed chairman of the parliamentary select committee responsible for censorship laws on art, publications and entertainment (which she openly opposed). He disowned her with a public address in parliament and she became depressed
 * In 1966, in Cape Town, she walked into the sea, and committed suicide by drowning
 * Her literary friends wanted her poems to be read at her funeral but her father blocked this, seeing it as a protest against the regime. He would have anyone arrested if they were to read the poetry
 * Ingrid's sister Anna boycotted the funeral in protest against the change to the arrangements. At the funeral, the mourners were divided (her family - her friends)
 * Her friends (and Anna) would hold a second funeral for her where her poetry was celebrated
 * After the death of his daughter, Abraham Jonker's health went into rapid decline. He began drinking alcohol heavily and died of an aneurism on January 10, 1966, only six months after his daughter's suicide
 * Ingrid Jonker Prize = Literary prize for the best debut work of Afrikaans or English poetry (set up by her friends in 1965)
 * Jauhar = Women of the Indian subcontinent committing mass self-immolation when facing certain defeat or abuse (sometimes including their children)
 * It was mostly seen in N. India, inspired by sati
 * The first were the Agalassoi who were losing to ATG
 * Erica Blasberg (1984 - 2010) = US golfer found dead by Dr. Thomas Hess (her doctor) with a plastic bag around her head. Initially, foul play was suspected as Hess admitted to removing a suicide note and the prescription medication he had given her, from the scene, hiding them in his car "to spare the family embarrassment". It said "Sorry for all the people I've hurt doing this, but please understand how miserable and sad I am, and that I feel no way of escaping it."
 * Evidence revealed that she had made repeated suicide attempts in the months leading up
 * Yevgenia Bosch (1879 - 1925) = Ukrainian political leader, sometimes considered the first modern woman leader of a national government (and effectively the first PM of Ukraine). She was a Bolshevik activist
 * In 1924, she succumbed to despair after hearing that Trotsky had been forced to resign as leader of the Red Army, as well as in pain from her heart condition and tuberculosis, and she committed suicide by self-inflicted gunshot in Jan 1925
 * As this act was viewed the easy way out ("however justified it might be by incurable illness, remained an act of indiscipline"), she did not get a special burial
 * A large suspension bridge in Kiev was named after her in 1925 but blown up during WW2. Many other things named after her were discarded
 * Isabella Blow (1958 - 2007) = Magazine editor and muse of hat designer Philip Treacy. She discovered Stella Tennant and Sophie Dahl and promoted Alexander McQueen
 * Blow made several more suicide attempts in 2007, by driving her car into the rear of a lorry, attempting to obtain horse tranquilizers, trying to drown herself in a lake and by overdosing while on a beach in India
 * She died at a house party in 2007 after drinking the weedkiller Paraquat
 * At the inquest, Blow's sister, Lavinia Verney, stated that after she discovered her sister had ingested the poison, Blow had told her, "I'm worried that I haven't taken enough"
 * In Samoa from 1979–2001, 70% of suicides were by paraquat poisoning. It is also frequently used in Trinidad
 * It's common in third-world countries because of availability and low cost. The toxic dose is also low (10 mL or 2 teaspoons is enough to kill). *Campaigns exist to control / ban paraquat - in 2011, a South Korean law completely banned it and the overall suicide rate greatly decreased
 * It has been hypothesised to increase production of certain oxygen derivatives that may harm cellular structures and cause Parkinson's disease
 * Amy Levy (1861 - 1889) = Novelist and first Jewish woman at Cambridge University. Inhaled carbon monoxide 2 months before turning 28
 * Lise Lindbæk (1905 - 1961) = Norweigan journalist regarded as Norway's first female war correspondent. Amongst the people she cooperated with during the war were the writers Ernest Hemingway and Nordahl Grieg
 * She died in Kiel, Germany in 1961, committing suicide by drowning herself in the sea.
 * Eleanor Marx (1855 – 1898) = Youngest daughter of Karl. After learning her partner (Edward Aveling) had a secret marriage, she poisoned herself at 43yo
 * Laura Marx (1845 – 1911) = Karl's second daughter and wife of Paul Lafargue. During their first three-years of marriage they had three children, two boys and a girl, all of whom died in infancy. They spent several decades working together, translating Marx into French, and spreading his ideas in France and Spain
 * At the age of 69 (Paul) and 66 (Laura), they died together by a suicide pact. His note started - "Healthy in body and mind, I end my life before pitiless old age which has taken from me my pleasures and joys one after another; and which has been stripping me of my physical and mental powers, can paralyse my energy and break my will, making me a burden to myself and to others..."
 * Maningning Miclat (1972 - 2000) = Filipino poet and bamboo Zen painter. Jumped from a building in Manila at 28yo
 * Veronica Micle (1850 - 1889) = Romanian poet who had an affair with Mihai Eminescu (most famous Romanian poet). She took arsenic shortly after Eminescu's death
 * Pamela Moore (1937 - 1964) = US novelist who published Chocolates for Breakfast when she was 18 (Courtney Love was named after the lead character). She shot herself at her typewriter at 26yo
 * Eva Mottley (1953 - 1985) = Barbadian-born British actress who played Denzel's wife (Corinne Tulser). She developed an addiction to cocaine and alcohol (leaving her in debt by over £25,000)
 * She committed suicide on Valentine's Day 1985 by overdosing on alcohol and barbiturates at 31yo. She left one note to her parents and another note that was only partially legible
 * Ona Munson (1903 - 1955) = US actress known for playing madam Belle Watling in David O. Selznick's Gone with the Wind (film) (1939)
 * After an unnamed surgical procedure, she committed suicide at 51yo with an overdose of barbiturates in her Manhattan apartment
 * She was rumoured to be a deeply closeted bisexual with lavender marriages. She was linked to the Hollywood "sewing circle" of the 1930s, a clique of lesbians organized by actress Alla Nazimova
 * Nelly Neppach (1898 – 1933) = Jewish-German female tennis player. She was forced out of the sport due to rising anti-semitism in the 1930s and gassed herself at 34yo.
 * Neppach was the first German female tennis player who had gained international appreciation
 * In 2015 a stolperstein (brass plate inscribed with the name and life dates of victims of Nazi extermination or persecution) was placed near her former home in Berlin
 * Klara Dan von Neumann (1911 - 1963) = One of the first computer programmers and former wife of John von Neumann
 * She died in 1963 when she drove from her home in La Jolla, California to the beach and walked into the surf and drowned
 * Yogmaya Neupane = Nepalese poet (author of the famous book 'Sarwartha Yogbani') and religious cult leader.
 * Yogmaya and her 67 disciples consciously committed the biggest mass suicide (Jal-Samadhi) in Nepali history by jumping into the Arun River in 1941

FR 01/05/20
 * The Cockney rhyming slang “to take the Mickey Bliss” means 'take the piss' - this is where we got 'Take the Mick(ey) out of...' from in the 1930s.
 * Later, a mock-genteel version 'to extract the Michael' became briefly fashionable
 * Mayerling incident = The possible case of murder-suicide involving Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria (1858 - 1889) and his lover, Baroness Mary Vetsera (1871 - 1889). Rudolf was married to Princess Stéphanie of Belgium
 * Rudolf was found in his hunting lodge sitting motionless by the side of the bed, leaning forward and bleeding from the mouth. It was initially assumed that he had drunk strychnine, causing his bleeding. Mary Vetsera's body was on the bed and rigor mortis had already set in
 * It was subsequently announced that the Archduke had first shot the baroness in a suicide pact and sat by her body for several hours before shooting himself
 * The most accepted theory is that Rudolph was ill with syphilis and felt guilty that he had infected his wife
 * Overall, the facts are disputed: it has been suggested that Vetsera was killed by Crown Prince Rudolf, who then killed himself; that they both killed themselves; that they killed one another; and that the two of them were murdered. Some also say Vetsera was pregnant at the time of her death
 * Frances Ford Seymour (1908 - 1950) = Mother of Jane and Peter Fonda. She slit her throat with a razor blade 10 days after her 42nd birthday and three and a half months after Henry Fonda asked her for a divorce
 * Rachel Roberts (1927 - 1980) = Welsh actress and one of Rex Harrison's 6 wives. She was an alcoholic, with a history of eccentric behaviour
 * She imitated a Welsh Corgi when intoxicated. Once, at a party hosted by Richard Harris, she attacked Robert Mitchum on all fours, chewing his trousers and champing on his bare skin, while he patted her on the head, saying "there, there"
 * She was desperate to get Harrison back but he remarried and she got depressed and drank more
 * In 1980, she died in her LA apartment at 53yo. Her gardener found her body on her kitchen floor, lying amidst shards of glass; she had fallen through a decorative glass divide between two rooms. An autopsy later determined that she died after "swallowing a caustic substance"
 * Minnie Vautrin (1886 - 1941) = US missionary who protected thousands of Chinese refugees during the Nanking Massacre
 * She kept a diary, writing: "In my wrath, I wished I had the power to smite them for their dastardly work. How ashamed women of Japan would be if they knew these tales of horror"
 * She returned to the US horrified by what she had seen and the fate to come for other young women. She died at 54yo after turning on the stove gas in her apartment in Indianapolis. One of her last entires read: "Had I ten perfect lives, I would give them all to China"
 * MV was posthumously awarded the Emblem of the Blue Jade by the Chinese government
 * She was portrayed by Mariel Hemingway in the documentary Nanking (2007 film)
 * Yukiko Okada (1967 - 1986) = Japanese idol who was found with a slashed wrist in her gas-filled Tokyo apartment, crouching in a closet and crying in 1986. She was found, hospitalize, discharged and brought to the Sun Music Building. While the manager of the building and the staff were discussing how to avoid a media scandal, Okada ran up to the stairs, took off her shoes and jumped from the seven-story building
 * It has been speculated that she was heartbroken, with some of her notes stating: "I wanted to see him again" and "My heart has nowhere else to go."
 * Yukko Syndrome = The Copycat suicides that followed
 * Nika Turbina (1974 - 2002) = Russian poet famous for her profound / emotional poems written at an early age
 * Charlotte Perkins Gilman (1860 - 1935) = US writer famous for The Yellow Wallpaper (1892) about a woman in a room who mentally breaks down and starts peeling the wallpaper after thinking someone is living inside. She then feels she has 'become' that woman
 * Gilman said she was a feminist humanist but was also a racist - calling for "enlistment" rather than "enslavement" to require the enforced labor of black Americans, "men, women and children"
 * She claimed to be "an Anglo-Saxon before everything" and felt 'immigrants' were "diluting the [US] nation's reproductive purity"
 * She decided to overdose in 1935, saying she "chose chloroform over [her breast] cancer"
 * Mary Terán de Weiss (1918 - 1984) = Argentine tennis player active in the 40s and 50s
 * She was persecuted by the military dictatorship which came to power in 1955 because of her sympathy / identification with the Peronist Movement. She was exiled in Spain and Uruguay and had to retire from tennis in the late 1950s.
 * She was excluded from all recognition by the press and sport organisations
 * She wanted to spread tennis beyond just the upper classes but was constantly ignored. In 1984, she jumped from the seventh floor of a building in Mar del Plata at 66yo
 * The Singing Nun / Jeannine Deckers AKA Sœur Sourire ('sister smile') (1933 - 1985) = Belgian singer who acquired widespread fame in 1963 with the French song "Dominique", reaching #1 on the US billboard
 * Most of her earnings were taken by her staff. She left the church but could no longer use her artist name and, despite releasing more work, saw her success fade
 * Deckers embarked on teaching disabled youngsters in Wavre, eventually opening her own school for autistic children with close childhood friend Annie Pécher
 * She would go on to have a nervous breakdown and several financial difficulties meaning this school had to be shut
 * Decker and Pécher died together in 1985 from overdosing on barbiturates and were later buried together. They denied being lesbians
 * Sara Teasdale (1884 - 1933) = US poet who overdosed on sleeping pills. Her note was rumoured to be her poem 'I shall not care' but this was actually published 18 years before her suicide: I Shall Not Care // WHEN I am dead and over me bright April // Shakes out her rain-drenched hair, // Tho' you should lean above me broken-hearted, // I shall not care. // I shall have peace, as leafy trees are peaceful // When rain bends down the bough, // And I shall be more silent and cold-hearted // Than you are now
 * Her famous poem There Will Come Soft Rains (1918) imagines nature reclaiming a battlefield after the fighting (war) is finished. It also refers to human extinction from war (which was not a common idea before nuclear weapons): There will come soft rains and the smell of the ground, // And swallows calling with their shimmering sound; // And frogs in the pools singing at night, // And wild plum-trees in tremulous white; // Robins will wear their feathery fire // Whistling their whims on a low fence-wire; // And not one will know of the war, not one // Will care at last when it is done. // Not one would mind, neither bird nor tree // If mankind perished utterly; // And Spring herself, when she woke at dawn, // Would scarcely know that we were gone
 * Jean Seberg (1938 - 1979) = US actress known for her performance in Jean-Luc Godard's Breathless (1960 film). She was also one of the best-known targets of the FBI COINTELPRO project after supporting the Black panthers and other minority groups in the 60s
 * In 1970, the FBI created the false story about the paternity of her unborn child (saying it was fathered by a BP leader rather than her husband) that was reported in gossip rags. This caused her to deliver the baby prematurely and it died after a couple of days. She had an open casket funeral to show reporters the infant was white
 * She was also stalked by the FBI and was the target of break-ins and other intimidation-oriented activity, even following her to France. She was also blacklisted from Hollywood
 * In 1979, she went missing. 9 days later, her decomposing body was found wrapped in a blanket in the back seat of her Renault, parked close to her Paris apartment. She had a bottle of barbiturates and a note that read "Forgive me. I can no longer live with my nerves"
 * Police theorised that someone was present at the time of her death and failed to get her medical care
 * Madonna based her style on JS in the video for Papa Don't Preach (1986)
 * Kiki Preston (1898 - 1946) = US socialite and member of the Happy Valley set. She apparently had an illegitimate son - Michael Temple Canfield - with Prince George, Duke of Kent (she also probably got George into hard drugs)
 * She was known as "the girl with the silver syringe", due to her drug addiction
 * She lost many of her friends and family including Alice de Janzé and another son, leading to her sadness
 * In 1946, she jumped from the 5th floor of her apartment at 995 Fifth Avenue, NY (Charlie Parker also died in this building in 1955)
 * Marina Tsvetaeva (1841 - 1941) = Russian Revolution poet, considered one of the best in 20th century Russian literature
 * Her husband Sergei Efron and her daughter Ariadna Èfron were arrested on espionage charges in 1941; her husband was executed. Tsvetaeva hanged herself in 1941
 * Unica Zürn (1916 - 1970) = German poet and Surrealist artist known for her use of anagrams and surrealist automatism. Frequently collaborated with Hans Bellmer - they were buried together when he died (she had previously jumped from her Paris apartment)
 * Yang Gang (1905 - 1957) = Top Chinese journalist who was forced to persecute her colleagues / friends during the Anti-Rightist Campaign (57 - 59) - where rightists basically meant capitalists. She overdosed on sleeping pills shortly after
 * Sahel (Arabic for 'the coast / shore') = From West to East, it's a region including parts of northern Senegal, southern Mauritania, central Mali, northern Burkina Faso, the extreme south of Algeria, Niger, the extreme north of Nigeria, the extreme north of Cameroon and Central African Republic, central Chad, central and southern Sudan, the extreme north of South Sudan, Eritrea, and the extreme north of Ethiopia
 * It has experienced regular droughts and megadroughts (> 2 decades). One megadrought in this region lasted 250 years. It also has many famines as a result
 * Cherubism = Rare genetic disorder that causes prominence in the lower portion in the face - e.g. Robert Z'Dar
 * Wang Saen Suk = Buddhist temple in Thailand representing Naraka (hell)
 * Chankiri Tree = Tree in the Khmer Rouge Killing Fields where children (of the parents found guilty) were smashed against
 * Hyades (mythology) = Greek rain-making nymphs
 * Toynbee tiles = Messages found embedded in the asphalt in several N and S American countries. They often [partially] say: TOYNBEE IDEA IN MOViE `2001 RESURRECT DEAD ON PLANET JUPiTER
 * It is theorised that they are the work of Sevy Verna (a reclusive Philadelphia resident). David Mamet thinks they're an homage to one of his plays
 * Baba Anujka = Serbian serial killer who poisoned 50-150+ people in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. She was apprehended in 1928 at age 90 and sentenced to 15 years but released after 8 due to old age
 * Damnatio memoriae = Latin for 'condemnation of memory' - i.e. removing all records of someone's achievements
 * It was seen under Egyptian pharaoh Hatshepsut in the fourteenth century BC
 * Parastratiosphecomyia stratiosphecomyioides (From Greek -> 'Near soldier wasp-fly') = Longest scientific name for an animal: A fly from Thailand
 * Muvaffakiyetsizleştiricileştiriveremeyebileceklerimizdenmişsinizcesine = Longest word in Turkish - meaning 'As though you are from those whom we may not be able to easily make into a maker of unsuccessful ones'
 * Ademimerkeziyetçilik = Turkish for 'decentralisation'
 * Super- "above", cali- "beauty", fragilistic- "delicate", expiali- "to atone", and -docious "educable", with all of these parts combined meaning "Atoning for educability through delicate beauty."
 * (DEF) Saippuakivikauppias = Finnish Palindrome - meaning 'soapstone vendor'
 * (DEF) Testudinal = Of / resembling a tortoise
 * Sternocleidomastoid muscle = Big muscle in the neck (cervical), seen when you turn your head
 * Chatoyancy AKA chatoyance AKA cat's eye effect = An optical reflectance effect seen in certain gemstones - e.g. in Tiger's eye
 * It is seen best when a gemstone is cut en cabochon (rounded with a flat base)

SA 02/05/20
 * (DEF) Aberuncate = Eradicate / pull up by the roots
 * (DEF) Vivisepulture = The art of burying things alive
 * (DEF) Jentacular = Of / pertaining to early morning breakfast - "I took a post-jentacular walk to settle my stomach"
 * Prandial refers to lunch, cenatory refers to dinner
 * (DEF) Arenicolous = Living / burrowing in the sand
 * (DEF) Allodoxaphobia = Fearing others' opinions
 * Scopophobia = Fear of others staring at you
 * Videlicet comes from the Latin phrase videre licet (it's permitted to see) but is shortened to Viz.
 * Opalescence = The optical effects seen in various types of opal from refraction / reflection - due to the layering, spacing, and size of the myriad microscopic silicon dioxide spheres and included water (or air) in its physical structure
 * Ovipositor = Tube-like organ used to lay eggs (e.g. insects and fish)
 * Hypermetropia = Far-sightedness
 * Diplopia = Double vision
 * Agathism = Believing all things tend towards ultimate good
 * Paroxysmal attack = A sudden recurrence or intensification of symptoms, such as a spasm or seizure. Paroxysm means a sudden fit / attack
 * Concupiscence = An ardent, sensual longing - a sinful lusting
 * Sphenopalatine ganglioneuralgia = Brain freeze
 * Transuranium element = Chemical elements with atomic numbers > 92 (the atomic number of uranium). All of these elements are unstable and decay radioactively into other elements
 * Tzedakah = Hebrew for 'righteousness' - it broadly refers to the religious obligation to do what is right and just, but also means being charitable (like Zakat)
 * Anatidaephobia = The fear of being watched by a duck
 * Pekwachnamaykoskwaskwaypinwanik Lake = A lake of Manitoba and Canada's longest place name. It means 'where the wild trout are caught by fishing with hooks' in Cree
 * Rakugo = Japanese art form of storytelling - in the Seiza position. A popular story is Jugemu
 * Pinocytosis = Ingestion of liquid into a cell by the budding of small vesicles from the cell membrane
 * Proparoxytone = Stressing the third last syllable - e.g. operation, equivocation, television
 * Oxytone = Stressing the first syllable
 * Paroxyton = Stressing the penultimate (second last) syllable - e.g. potáto, and just about all words ending in –ic such as músic, frántic, and phonétic; except for rhétoric
 * Perspicacity = Clarity of vision / intellect which provides a deep understanding and insight
 * Photodisintegration = A nuclear process where an atomic nucleus absorbs a high-energy gamma ray, enters an excited state, and immediately decays by emitting a subatomic particle
 * Flibbertigibbet = A gossipy or overly talkative person
 * In Thai, Bangkok is 'Krung Thep Mahanakhon Amon Rattanakosin Mahinthara Ayuthaya Mahadilok Phop Noppharat Ratchathani Burirom Udomratchaniwet Mahasathan Amon Piman Awatan Sathit Sakkathattiya Witsanukam Prasit' meaning 'The city of angels, the great city, the residence of the Emerald Buddha, the impregnable city (unlike Ayutthaya) of God Indra, the grand capital of the world endowed with nine precious gems, the happy city, abounding in an enormous Royal Palace that resembles the heavenly abode where reigns the reincarnated god, a city given by Indra and built by Vishnukarn'
 * Most Thai people just call it Krung Thep
 * Mister Mxyzptlk = Impish character in Superman - sometimes appearing as a supervillain and other times as an antihero
 * Rinderkennzeichnungs- und Rindfleischetikettierungsüberwachungsaufgabenübertragungsgesetz = Former German law about labelling beef
 * Donaudampfschiffahrtselektrizitätenhauptbetriebswerkbauunterbeamtengesellschaft = Part of the Austrian shipping company, Donaudampfschiffahrtsgesellschaft
 * Sfogliatella = Shell-shaped Italian pastry
 * Cabotage (French 'caboter' -> "to travel along the coast) = Transporting goods / passengers between 2 places in the same country by a transport operator from another country
 * Carriers licensed under EU law are permitted to engage in cabotage in any EU member state - e.g. Ryanair and easyJet operate domestic services outside their home countries
 * Zenzizenzizenzic = An old term for the 8th power ('the zenzizenzizenzic of x is x8')
 * Quomodocunquize = Making money in any way possible
 * Sinistrodextral = Left to right
 * Dextrosinistral = Right to left
 * The Sixty-fourth note is AKA a hemidemisemiquaver or semidemisemiquaver
 * Spaghettification / noodle effect = Tidal forces pulling and stretching of an object - e.g. an astronaut passing in a black hole's event horizon would be "stretched like spaghetti" according to Hawking
 * Rumtopf (rum pot) = Austrian, German and Danish Xmas dessert of mixed fruit and alcohol
 * It's time consuming to make and is usually served as a topping on poundcake, waffles & ice cream
 * Gruinard Island = Small Scottish island that became dangerous for all mammals after experiments with the anthrax bacterium in 1942 (using the Vollum strain), until it was decontaminated in the late 20th century
 * Kantubek = Uninhabited Uzbekistan town that was used by the Soviet Union to test anthrax. It was believed to be the world's largest anthrax dumping ground but was mostly cleaned up in 2002

WE 03/05/20
 * Parasite aircraft = A plane within a plane, housed inside the mother ship - e.g. the Bristol Scout of 1916
 * Goodyear Inflatoplane = Inflatable plane launched in 1956
 * Preformationism = A once-popular theory that organisms develop from miniature versions of themselves. It suggests that all organisms were created at the same time, and that succeeding generations grow from homunculi, or animalcules, that have existed since the beginning of creation
 * van Leeuwenhoek was one of the first to observe spermatozoa and thought they also contained all human organs
 * Philosopher Nicolas Malebranche was the first to advance the hypothesis that each embryo could contain even smaller embryos ad infinitum, like a Matryoshka doll
 * Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632 - 1723) AKA 'The Father of Microbiology' = Self-taught Duth scientist who created many microscopes. As such, he was one of the first to study cells and is credited with discovering protists (infusoria), bacteria, the cell vacuole, spermatozoa (in 1677) and the banded pattern of muscular fibers
 * His discoveries came to light through correspondence (> 500 letters) with the Royal Society
 * He died at 90yo of a very rare disorder (a type of Myoclonus called Belly Dancer's Syndrome or Van Leeuwenhoek's disease). When you speak, this condition makes it sound like you're hiccuping
 * He is rumoured to be he man portrayed in two Vermeer paintings of the late 1660s: The Astronomer and The Geographer
 * Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729 - 1799) = Italian priest and biologist who was the first to show that fertilisation requires both spermatozoa and an ovum. He was also the first to perform in vitro fertilization, with frogs, and an artificial insemination, using a dog and the first to show animals' regeneration (e.g. newts regrowing limbs)
 * He also did pioneering work in echolocation, realising bats could fly in the dark without using their eyes
 * Despite all this, he believed in preformationism
 * In 1939, Donald Griffin and Robert Galambos measured the ability of bats to avoid obstacles by having them fly through a barrier of metal wires suspended from a ceiling. They showed how bats used echolocation (term not coined until 1944) to accurately avoid obstacles, which they were unable to do if their mouths or ears were kept shut
 * During WW2, Griffin supported the approval of the bat bomb. He also argued that animals were conscious, thinking beings
 * Howdy Doody = US kids TV show (1940s - 1960s) featuring Buffalo Bob Smith and a 48 freckled (one for each state of the union at the time of his creation) puppet called Howdy Doody
 * It started with Buffalo Bob asking the children sat on the bleachers, "Say kids, what time is it?" and the kids yelling in unison, "It's Howdy Doody Time!". The show would also feature twin bears, Hyde and Zeke
 * Etymology: They're called bleachers because they've been 'bleached by the sun'
 * Clarabell the Clown = A mute clown played by Bob Keeshan (Captain Kangaroo)
 * During the series finale in 1960, Clarabell repeatedly pantomimed that he had a very big surprise for the viewers. He said he could talk and whispered into the camera, "Goodbye, kids" before the screen faded to black
 * Bacalhau = Portugese for dried and salted cod, also popular in Sfax (Tunisia's 'second city' - pr. S + Vegas) during Eid al-Fitr
 * Dasani launched (and failed) in the UK in 2004, accused of selling treated tap water from Sidcup and compared to Del Boy's Peckham Spring by the media
 * The final nail came when authorities found a batch contaminated with bromate, a suspected human carcinogen, above the legal limit for sale
 * Splanchnic (referring to the abdominal area) is from the A. Greek 'splanchnikos' ('inward parts')
 * Stephen Fry and Rory Bremner exchange on QI (S4E4) - Stephen: Hey! No, no. [patronisingly] When I said "eye", I meant E-Y-E, and you thought--  Rory: Yeah, yeah . . .    Stephen:--possibly for comic effect, but if so, disastrously, er, that I was saying "I". And that wasn’t what was happening at all! It was completely something else. It was one of those laughable misunderstandings, and I use the word "laughable" quite wrongly.
 * Stephen Crane (1871 - 1900) = US poet / novelist. He was a major inspiration for Ernest Hemingway, who said The Red Badge of Courage was "one of the finest books of [American] literature"
 * He often explored ideals versus realities, spiritual crises and fear. His antitheism is most evident in his characterization of the human race as "lice clinging to a space-lost bulb" in "The Blue Hotel"
 * He died of tuberculosis at 28yo
 * Rhyming reduplication = hokey-pokey, razzle-dazzle, super-duper, boogie-woogie, teenie-weenie, walkie-talkie, hoity-toity, wingding, ragtag, easy-peasy, hurdy-gurdy
 * Exact reduplications (baby-talk-like) = bye-bye, choo-choo, night-night, no-no, pee-pee, poo-poo. In South African English, 'now-now' means 'somewhat later' (whereas an ordinary 'now' generally means 'immediately', but can also be used to mean 'somewhat later', depending on the tone of speech).
 * Ablaut reduplications = chit-chat, hip-hop, ding-dong, jibber-jabber, kitty-cat, knick-knack, pitter-patter, splish-splash, zig-zag, flip-flop (the first is [almost always] high, second low)
 * Shm-reduplication can be used with most any word; e.g. baby-shmaby, fancy-shmancy (common in Yiddish NY speech)
 * Comparative reduplication is when you use reduplication to show how something changes over time - i.e. "John's apple looked redder and redder,"
 * Contrastive focus reduplication AKA lexical cloning = Repeating the word to show it's a 'real / more important version' - e.g. "I don't like you-like You, I just like you", "Do you want soy milk?"--"No, I want milk milk"
 * Graybar Hotel = US slang for jail (used by Norm on DMS)
 * Jon Brower Minnoch (1941 - 1983) = Heaviest person ever (635kg / 100st -- 6'1")
 * It took over a dozen people and a special stretcher to move him around
 * He had massive edema that eventually became incurable and he stopped getting treatment. Died at 41yo
 * Facetiae = First printed joke book
 * Vicuña and Guanaco are the only S. American camelids of the Andes
 * Stockdale Paradox = Never confuse the faith that you will prevail with the discipline to confront the most brutal facts of your current reality (James Stockdale)
 * (DEF) Pavonian = Peacock-like
 * Sjamboks and Kurbash are whips made out of hippo skin

SU 10/05/20
 * Hyoscine / Scopolamine = Nausea / motion sickness medicine that can also be used to decrease saliva production (for operations)
 * It is produced from nightshade (Solanaceae)
 * In 2009, the Czechoslovak state security secret police were proven to have used hyoscine multiple times to obtain confessions from alleged anti-state dissidents. However, its used as a truth serum is discouraged due to its side effects - including mydriasis, erythema and anaphylaxis
 * It is apparently used in crime (e.g. in Columbia) under a form called 'devil's breath' that renders victims in a 'zombie state' - suffering Anterograde amnesia - where they can be easily taken advantage of. These claims are greatly exaggerated
 * Squamous cell carcinoma = Type of skin cancer that develops in the outer layers of an individual's epidermis
 * Weber–Fechner law = The idea that perception varies depending on the actual change in a physical stimulus and the perceived change - e.g. if you have a square with 5 dots and add 10, there would be a clear difference before and after. However, if you start with 500 and add 10, you couldn't really pick up on the change. Similar effects may be seen with weights
 * Just-noticeable difference = Limen indicating the amount something must be changed in order for a difference to be noticeable
 * Gustav Fechner (1801 - 1887) = German who was one of the founders of modern experimental psychology. He's also known for Fechner color effect (illusion where colours are seen in a moving pattern of black and white) and Fechner's paradox (looking at a light with one eye made it seem brighter than when looking at it with both)
 * Sone = Non-SI unit of loudness
 * Dysphoric milk ejection reflex (D-MER: pr. D.M.E.R.) = Experiencing dysphoria (unease, anxiety, stress) just before lactating. It is thought to have only been documented in the 2000s and why it happens is still not clear
 * Nebelwerfer ('smoke mortar') = WW2 German weapon (type of cannon)
 * Acutance = A perception of sharpness that is related to the edge contrast of an image - e.g. the sharpness tool in PS. Although an image with higher acutance appears sharper, higher acutance does not increase real resolution (see also: Mach bands
 * Ginger Rogers (1911 - 1995) = US actress / singer / dancer who won an Academy Award for Kitty Foyle (film) (1940)
 * In 1965, she played the lead role in Hello, Dolly!
 * "Backwards and in high heels" = Phrase to describe GR as she "did everything he '['Fred Astaire']' did...backwards and in high heels"
 * She was a lifelong Republican and Christian Scientist
 * She had 5 divorces (& 0 children)
 * Cilantro = US term for coriander
 * Backdraft = When oxygen rapidly enters an oxygen-depleted environment; (e.g. when a window to an enclosed space is opened / broken), a backdraft is a rapid or explosive burning of superheated gasses in a fire
 * They are similar to a flashover and are a serious threat for firefighters
 * Pyrolysis (A. Greek: 'pyro' -> fire + 'lysis' -> separating) = Thermal decomposition of materials at elevated temperatures in an inert atmosphere
 * It can be harnessed in cooking (e.g. caramelization is the pyrolysis of sugars in food - often after the sugars have been produced by the breakdown of polysaccharides)
 * The temperatures needed for caremelization lie above the boiling point of water
 * ʻAta = Tongan island (meaning 'reflection'). Ruled by the creator God Laufakana'a according to local legend
 * 6 youths (15 - 17 yo) who had stolen a small boat to fish there were stranded on the island after being caught in a storm from June 1965 to September 11, 1966
 * After an initial struggle, they discovered the ruins of the village of Kolomaile in the island's volcanic crater and survived on feral chickens, wild taro, and banana. They captured rainwater for drinking in hollowed-out tree trunks
 * They were eventually rescued by the Australian fishing boat Just David (Tevita), captained by Peter Warner. They were jailed initially (for theft) but bailed on the condition Warner could buy the rights for their story
 * John Updike (1932 - 2009) = One of only four writers to win the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction more than once (the others being Booth Tarkington, William Faulkner, and Colson Whitehead). He famously created the character Harry 'Rabbit' Angstrom in his Rabbit series
 * He wrote for the Harvard Lampoon and is considered on of the greatest US writers. He played himself in the Simpsons in 2000
 * He often wrote about death, including in the 1990 poem 'Perfection Wasted': "And another regrettable thing about death // is the ceasing of your own brand of magic..."
 * 1960 U-2 incident = 1 May incident where a US was shot down while performing photographic aerial reconnaissance deep into Soviet territory
 * The US initially claimed it was a NASA weather research aircraft but the pilot (Francis Gary Powers) was caught and the photos were recovered
 * Relations between the US (led by Dwight D. Eisenhower) and the SU (let by Nikita Khrushchev) deteriorated
 * FGP was released in 1962 during a prisoner exchange for Soviet officer Rudolf Abel
 * FGP later worked for KNBC Channel 4 news and died during a report from the air in the 1977 Encino helicopter crash
 * It ran out of fuel while he and his camerman were getting shots of LA bushfires
 * At the last moment, he noticed children playing in the area and directed the helicopter elsewhere to avoid landing on them. He might have landed safely if not for the last-second deviation
 * Hollow Nickel Case = In 1953, Abel (under the pseudonym Vilyam Genrikhovich Fisher) gave a nickel to a paperboy who realised it was too light. The boy dropped it on the ground, it came apart and a secret code was found on some microfilm inside. He contacted the police who escalated it to the FBI
 * The FBI spent several years trying to crack the code but, in 1957, Reino Häyhänen (famous user of the hand-operated VIC cipher) defected from the KGB and gave the required info
 * The message was just a welcome: "WE CONGRATULATE YOU ON A SAFE ARRIVAL... GREETINGS FROM THE COMRADES. NUMBER 1, 3RD OF DECEMBER"
 * Maurice Richard AKA Rocket (1921 - 2000) = First player in NHL history to score 50 goals in one season (in 50 games, 1944-45). He played for the Montreal Canadiens
 * He became the first non-politician honoured by the province of Quebec with a state funeral.
 * Now, the Maurice "Rocket" Richard Trophy is awarded to the highest scorer each NHL
 * Portage = Carrying a canoe (or other water craft) over land to avoid river obstacles - often done with tumplines
 * Tumpline = Having a single strap supported by the top of your head so you carry the weight on your spine, rather than shoulders (as with a backpack)
 * George Jessel (1898 - 1981) = US actor / singer / producer known as the 'Toastmaster General of the United States'
 * He starred in The Jazz Singer in the 1920s
 * Dikembe Mutombo AKA Mt. Mutombo = 7'2 Congolese NBA player known for charity work. He would also wave his index finger to taunt others after a successful block. He has the second most shots blocked ever, after Hakeem Olajuwon
 * In 2007, he completed a 300-bed hospital (Biamba Marie Mutombo Hospital) on the outskirts of his hometown, the Congolese capital of Kinshasa, dedicated to his late mother
 * Chankonabe = Large stew eaten by sumo wrestlers. Usually made of chicken brother, or fish and other protein-rich foods
 * Capitol Steps = Parody group, making fun of US presidents from Reagan to Trump. Albums include 'Between Iraq and a hard place', 'Obama Mia' and 'Orange Is the New Barack'
 * Neal Cassady (1926 - 1968) = Beat Generation figure who influenced Jack Kerouac's novel On the Road (1957)

MO 11/05/20
 * The spectator sees more of the game = 当局者迷 (pr. dongue-jew-jaw-me)
 * (DEF) Anfractuous = sinuous, twisty, winding - e.g. the movie's plot was incredibly anfractuous
 * Peltzman effect = The reduction of predicted benefit from regulations that intend to increase safety (similar to Tullock's spike)
 * Eristic = Arguing for the sake of it, not necessarily to prove the point
 * 'Sockdolager' (a knockout blow) was the cue on which John Wilkes Booth fired at Abraham Lincoln in 1865 at Ford’s Theater. Lincoln was watching the play Our American Cousin and Booth, an actor himself, knew the line that brought the loudest burst of laughter (to muffle the gunshot) was: “Well, I guess I know enough to turn you inside out, you sockdologising old man-trap”

TU 12/05/20
 * Circle-squaring expedition = Expression used by William F. Buckley Jr. when interviewing Groucho Marx
 * (DEF) Irenic = Peaceful / non-confrontational
 * (DEF) Parturition = The act of giving birth
 * Shakespeare used 28,000 words; 40% of of these were only used once
 * 'Felt needs' are changes deemed necessary by people to correct the deficiencies they perceive in their community
 * An easy money policy is a monetary policy that increases the money supply usually by lowering interest rates
 * Political gaffe = Michael Kinsley's term for when a political gaffe reveals some truth that a politician did not intend to admit
 * Fuddle duddle = 1971 incident where Pierre Trudeau gave "fuddle duddle" as an ambiguous answer to questions about what he may or may not have said in Parliament
 * "What is the nature of your thoughts, gentlemen, when you say "fuddle duddle" or something like that? God, you guys...! [walks away]"
 * He was accused by other MPs of having said "fuck off"
 * The previous year, during the October Crisis he had said "well, just watch me" when asked how far he would go in the suspension of civil liberties to maintain order
 * Witold Waszczykowski (pr. vee-told vash-to-coughs-key) = Polish politician who was minister of foreign affairs between 2015-18
 * In 2017, he called Saint Kitts and Nevis 'San Escobar', a non-exitant country, which became a meme
 * San Serriffe = Fictional island nation created for the 1977 April Fools by the Guardian (UK) as a 7 page hoax
 * During the 2003 Ontario general election, Ernie Eves' issued a news release calling Dalton McGuinty an "evil reptilian kitten-eater from another planet"
 * 'Call Me An Evil Reptilian Kitten Eater ... But I Want Change' T-shirts were later made
 * "The vision thing" = Bush sr. comment made ahead of the 1988 presidential election when urged to spend some time thinking about his plans for his prospective presidency
 * Tikkun olam ('heal the world') = Jewish aspiration to behave and act constructively and beneficially
 * W. E. B. Du Bois (1868 - 1963) = Pan-African author and civil rights figure. He co-founded the NAACP in 1909
 * Ingmar Bergman (1918 - 2007) = Swedish director (no relation to Ingrid, although he was married to another Ingrid Bergman) of The Seventh Seal (1957)
 * Kahuna = Hawaiian for 'priest' / 'magician' (or, more generally, anyone at the top of their field)
 * Ho'oponopono ('correction') = Hawaiian forgiveness process
 * Harold Lloyd (1893 - 1971) = US silent film comic / actor (considered a great alongside Charlie Chaplin and Buster Keaton)
 * In a 1919 accident he mistook a bomb as a prop and lost his right thumb and index finger. He wore a glove on his right hand to disguise the losses

TH 14/05/20
 * Gesamtkunstwerk ('total artwork') = A work that uses many artforms - e.g. Hôtel Tassel in Belgium (also the first Art Nouveau building)
 * Meige's syndrome AKA Brueghel's syndrome = Condition seen more often in women that can cause slurred speech (dysarthria)
 * William Lee Bergstrom AKA The Suitcase Man (1951 - 1985) = Gambler who placed (and won) one of the biggest bets ever at Binion's Gambling Hall and Hotel in 1981
 * Bergstrom walked in with 2 suitcases: one containing $770K and another empty. He won on a dice game and filled the second with his winnings (another $770k)
 * He'd borrowed most of the money and intended to commit suicide if he lost. Instead, he won and traveled the world for several years
 * He returned in 1984 and won a lot more money before placing a final bet staking $1m
 * He lost it all and ended up committing suicide on February 4, 1985, by swallowing pills
 * Nick the Greek (Nick Dandolos) was a slightly earlier (1883 - 1966) high rolling gambler
 * Archie Karas = Gambler famous for 'the run' in Las Vegas. He drove to LV with $50 in 1992, turned a $10,000 loan into more than $40 million in 1995 and lost it all in the same year
 * Paruresis AKA shy bladder syndrome = Fear of peeing in front of others
 * Britney Spears is an anagram of Presbyterians
 * Colombian necktie = Execution method seen in S. America where the victim's throat is slashed and the tongue is pulled down and through the neck wound
 * An OJ Simpson 94 trial alternative theory suggested that the murders were done by drug dealers due to the severe neck wounds and an [apparent] Columbian necktie

MO 18/05/20
 * A jiffy is approx. equal to 3 × 10&minus;24 seconds
 * Beda (fleet) gark (drown) literally means 'Sunk Ships)
 * Usufruct (from the Latin for 'use' + 'fruit') = The right to use someone else's property as long as you don't destroy it - e.g. the Ejido in Mexico or using someone's video camera to sell recordings
 * Biathlon = Cross-country skiing + rifle shooting winter sport

MO 25/05/20
 * Caparison = A cape for a horse (usually, but can also be on bulls or elephants) - worn over the back for protection / decoration
 * Claque = Professional clappers in French opera houses
 * Ugandan discussions = Private Eye term for 'sex scandal'
 * Tired and emotional = Drunk
 * Arkell v. Pressdram = A case where one party is told to 'fuck off'
 * Numbered lists are usually shorter than stated and include two final entries of "Er..." and "That's it".
 * The number 94 is used as a generic large number, to indicate that something is lengthy and boring. This originated with some articles ending mid-sentence with "(continued page 94)", where the 94th page doesn't exist
 * Phil Space = Fake name for a 'journalist' who's articles are just space fillers. The female version is called Polly Filla
 * Kilig = Tagalog word for the feeling of excitement due to various romantic situations such as making first eye contact with one's crush or watching another person propose to someone. No English translation
 * The top 4 countries responsible for chocolate production are the US, Germany, Switzerland, and Belgium
 * None of these are major producers of coco
 * Cocoa production in Ivory Coast accounts for ~40% of all cocoa production

SA 30/05/20
 * Louisville, Kentucky was named in honour of King Louis XVI of France, whose soldiers were then aiding Americans in the Revolutionary War

SU 21/02/21
 * Catkin = From the old dutch for 'kitten' - these can fall from many trees, including Hazel

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 Quotes 

SU 02/07/17

A single death is a tragedy, a million deaths is a statistic (usually attributed to Joseph Stalin)

TH 25/04/19

Urbani contracted SARS while treating infected patients in Hanoi. His Bangkok hospital room was an improvised isolation ward, and communication occurred via an intercom. His wife, Giuliana Chiorrini, saw him conscious just once. It is said that Urbani had an argument with Chiorrini who said it wasn't responsible behaviour for the father of three children ages 4 to 17 to risk his life treating such sick patients but Urbani replied, "If I can't work in such situations, what am I here for? Answering e-mails, going to cocktail parties and pushing paper?" Carlo Urbani

After considering his situation, believing that not only would he never walk again, but that he might never move a body part again, Reeve considered suicide. He mouthed to Dana, "Maybe we should let me go." She tearfully replied, "I am only going to say this once: I will support whatever you want to do because this is your life, and your decision. But I want you to know that I'll be with you for the long haul, no matter what. You're still you. And I love you." Reeve never considered euthanasia as an option again.

MO 29/04/19

Resentment is like drinking poison and expecting somebody else to die Craig Ferguson interview with Desmond Tutu

TU 30/04/19

Why are you stingy with yourselves? Why are you holding back? What are you saving for - for another time? There are no other times. There is only now. Right now. George Balanchine

Nothing is original. Steal from anywhere that resonates with inspiration or fuels your imagination. Devour old films, new films, music, books, paintings, photographs, poems, dreams, random conversations, architecture, bridges, street signs, trees, clouds, bodies of water, light and shadows. Select only things to steal from that speak directly to your soul. If you do this, your work (and theft) will be authentic. Authenticity is invaluable; originality is nonexistent. And don't bother concealing your thievery – celebrate it if you feel like it. In any case, always remember what Jean-Luc Godard said: "It's not where you take things from – it's where you take them to." Jim Jarmusch

TH 02/05/19

The more I learn about people, the more I like my dog. Mark Twain

Insomnia is his mind's revenge for all the tricky thoughts he has carefully avoided during the daylight hours. Alain de Botton

I much prefer the sharpest criticism of a single intelligent man to the thoughtless approval of the masses. Johannes Kepler

My solitude doesn’t depend on the presence or absence of people; on the contrary, I hate who steals my solitude without, in exchange, offering me true company. Friedrich Nietzsche

2% of the people think; 3% of the people think they think; and 95% percent of the people would rather die than think. Anon.

Most people would rather die than think; many do. Bertrand Russell

FR 03/05/19

Th newspaper does ivrything f'r us. It runs th' polis foorce an' th' banks, commands th' milishy, controls th' ligislachure, baptizes th' young, marries th' foolish, comforts th' afflicted, afflicts th' comfortable, buries th' dead an' roasts thim aftherward. Finley Peter Dunne

SA 04/05/19

The trouble with being punctual is that nobody's there to appreciate it. Franklin P. Jones

I have discovered in life that there are ways of getting almost anywhere you want to go, if you really want to go Langston Hughes

SU 19/05/19

Time is a great teacher, but unfortunately it kills all its pupils. Hector Berlioz

WE 05/06/19

Life can only be understood backwards; but it must be lived forward. Søren Kierkegaard

WE 12/06/19

Only think of two things – the gun and the tape. When you hear the one, just run like hell until you break the other. Sam Mussabini

TU 02/07/19

There are three deaths: the first is when the body ceases to function. The second is when the body is consigned to the grave. The third is that moment, sometime in the future, when your name is spoken for the last time. David Eagleman

WE 24/07/19

The people don't want war, but they can always be brought to the bidding of the leaders. This is easy. All you have to do is tell them they are being attacked, and denounce the pacifists for lack of patriotism and for exposing the country to danger. It works the same in every country. Hermann Göring

TH 05/09/19

You're on Earth. There's no cure for that Samuel Beckett

SA 26/09/19

Everything reactionary is the same; if you do not hit it, it will not fall. This is also like sweeping the floor; as a rule, where the broom does not reach, the dust will not vanish of itself Mao Zedong

FR 01/11/19

Repetition is an indestructible garment that fits closely and tenderly, neither binds nor sags. Hope is a lovely maiden who slips away between one’s fingers; recollection is a beautiful old woman with whom one is never satisfied at the moment; repetition is a beloved wife of whom one never wearies, for one only becomes weary of what is new. One never grows weary of the old, and when one has that, one is happy Søren Kierkegaard (as Constantin Constantius)

SU 10/11/19

Opportunities multiply as they are seized Sun Tzu

TU 06/04/20

There are decades where nothing happens; and there are weeks where decades happen Vladimir Lenin

SA 18/04/20

A person often meets his destiny on the road he took to avoid it. Jean de La Fontaine

No snowflake in an avalanche ever feels responsible. Voltaire

SU 19/04/20

My interest is in the future because I am going to spend the rest of my life there. Charles F. Kettering

MO 20/04/20

Car, vois-tu, chaque jour je t’aime davantage, Aujourd’hui plus qu’hier et bien moins que demain.

(For, you see, each day I love you more, Today more than yesterday and less than tomorrow.) Rosemonde Gérard

WE 29/04/20

A ship in harbor is safe, but that is not what ships are built for John Augustus Shedd

Success is the ability to move from one failure to another without loss of enthusiasm Winston Churchill

There is nothing noble in being superior to your fellow man; true nobility is being superior to your former self Ernest Hemingway

Fear... is forward. No one is afraid of yesterday. Renata Adler

Most humans are never fully present in the now, because unconsciously they believe that the next moment must be more important than this one. But then you miss your whole life, which is never not now Eckhart Tolle

You could be the ripest, juiciest peach in the world, and there will always be someone who hates peaches Dita Von Teese

Don't let the fear of the time it will take to accomplish something stand in the way of your doing it. The time will pass anyway; we might just as well put that passing time to the best possible use Earl Nightingale

Give a man a mask and he will show you his true self Oscar Wilde

My dear, Find what you love and let it kill you. Let it drain you of your all. Let it cling onto your back and weigh you down into eventual nothingness. Let it kill you and let it devour your remains. For all things will kill you, both slowly and fastly, but it’s much better to be killed by a lover Charles Bukowski (disputed)

It's only embarrassing if you're embarrassed Anon.

Someone I loved once gave me a box full of darkness. It took me years to understand that this too, was a gift Mary Oliver

If you are the smartest person in the room, you are in the wrong room Confucius

Man cannot remake himself without suffering, for he is both the marble and the sculptor Alexis Carrel

It's so hard to forget pain, but it's even harder to remember sweetness. We have no scar to show for happiness. We learn so little from peace Chuck Palahniuk

Courage doesn't always roar. Sometimes courage is a quiet voice at the end of the day saying, "I will try again tomorrow." Mary Anne Radmacher

The reason we struggle with insecurity is because we compare our behind-the-scenes with everyone else’s highlight reel Steven Furtick

Forgiveness means giving up all hope for a better past Anon.

No man ever steps in the same river twice, for it's not the same river and he's not the same man Heraclitus

I ask not for a lighter burden, but broader shoulders Seneca

I am the elephantine shadow of my own tears Federico García Lorca (in 'Gacela of the Dark Death')

TU 05/05/20 A bird sitting on a tree is never afraid of the branch breaking, because its trust is not on the branch but on its own wings Anon.

FR 08/05/20 A genius is the one most like himself Thelonious Monk

The unexamined life is not worth living Socrates

TU 11/05/20 Poor Faulkner. Does he really think big emotions come from big words? He thinks I don't know the ten-dollar words. ... But there are older and simpler and better words, and those are the ones I use Ernest Hemingway

TH 14/05/20 Communism is the opiate of the intellectuals with no cure except as a guillotine might be called a cure for dandruff Clare Boothe Luce (wife of Henry Luce)

MO 18/05/20 The only way out is through Robert Frost

TU 19/05/20 I am a 21st century person who was accidentally launched in the 20th. I have a deep nostalgia for the future FM-2030

WE 20/05/20 Education is an admirable thing. But it is well to remember from time to time that nothing that is worth knowing can be taught

Art is the only serious thing in the world. And the artist is the only person who is never serious

The old believe everything; the middle-aged suspect everything; the young know everything

All women become like their mothers. That is their tragedy. No man does. That’s his

No man is rich enough to buy back his own past

The things people say of a man do not alter a man. He is what he is. Public opinion is of no value whatsoever

No great artist ever sees things as they really are. If he did, he would cease to be an artist

An idea that is not dangerous is unworthy of being called an idea at all

People who count their chickens before they are hatched act very wisely because chickens run about so absurdly that it's impossible to count them accurately...

We have really everything in common with America nowadays, except, of course, language Oscar Wilde

TU 26/05/20 If potential was food, Africa would be the best fed country in the world Abdulsamad Rabiu

TH 28/05/20 Do not adjust your mind, the fault is in reality R.D. Laing

WE 10/06/20 I am convinced that the universe is under the control of a loving purpose and that in the struggle for righteousness man has cosmic companionship. Behind the harsh appearances of the world there is a benign power. Martin Luther King

FR 12/06/20 Take kindly the counsel of the years, gracefully surrendering the things of youth. Nurture strength of spirit to shield you in sudden misfortune. But do not distress yourself with dark imaginings. Many fears are born of fatigue and loneliness. Beyond a wholesome discipline, be gentle with yourself. You are a child of the universe no less than the trees and the stars; you have a right to be here. And whether or not it is clear to you, no doubt the universe is unfolding as it should Max Ehrmann

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

 Creations 

Kayak angst

SA 02/05/20
 * GEOGRAPHY**
 * Afghanistan means 'place of the Afghans (Pashtun tribe)'
 * Known as 'the graveyard of empires' for how hard it is to win there
 * Founded by Ahmad Shah Durrani in the 1700s. He was incarcerated and freed to command and conquer much of present-day Afghanistan, some of Pakistan and Iran and Dehli - see Third Battle of Panipat (1761)
 * The Durand Line was formed in 1893
 * Humans have lived their for > 50,000 years
 * Ariana = Term used by Greeks and Romans to refer to Afghanistan, east Iran and Pakistan up to the Indus
 * Ariana Afghan Airlines is also the national carrier
 * Zoroaster lived in Afghanistan and was said to have started his religion there
 * Initially, there was mainly Buddhism with the Kushan Empire and Zoroastrianism with some Hinduism with the Hindu Shahi
 * Syncretism = The mixing of different beliefs and the resulting blended practices
 * Islam came to Herat and Zaranj in 642 CE
 * Shrine of the Cloak = A shrine in Kandahar where Muhammad's cloak from the 621 Night Journey is said to be housed
 * A later prominent leader was Dost Mohammad Khan (in 1826)
 * Mortimer Durand = British diplomat who, in 1893, made the Pashtun / Baloch territorial divide (Durand Line)
 * Mohammed Zahir Shah = Last King of Afghanistan (deposed by his cousin in 1973 who established a republic instead)
 * This cousin was PM Mohammed Daoud Khan, a Pasthun nationalist who made irredentist claims to land in N. Pakistan
 * In the 30s, Afghanistan received more Soviet development aid than any other country (per capita)
 * The US and SU vied for influence and built their main highways and airports
 * They had a civil war in the late 70s with mujahideen rebels against local armed forces (Pakistan and the US supported the rebels, SU supported the local regime)
 * At the same time, the Khalq were fighting the Parcham (factions of their main party - the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan)
 * The Soviets eventually intervened and installed Babrak Karmal as president. They also sent in more troops and this started the Soviet-Afghan War that continued until the SU withdrew in 1989
 * Conflicts still continued after this and the mujahideen committed widespread rape, murder and extortion
 * In 1994, the Tailban emerged and took control of Kandahar and then almost Kabul the next year
 * They were overthrown in Dec 2001 and Hamid Karzai became president (the Taliban retreated to Pakistan to try and regroup)
 * Afghanistan has been the largest refugee-producing country in the world for 32 years (as at 2013)
 * The main ethnic groups are Pashtun, Tajik & Hazara
 * Dari and Pashto are the official languages
 * Zablon Simintov = Last Jew living there
 * The country is divided into 34 provinces including Badakhshan, Farah and Helmand
 * They are known to produce pomegranates and other fruit
 * They provide > 95% of European's heroin supply. Around 16% of their national economy is from opium sales. They also produce a lot of lithium and have lots of untapped mineral deposits (worth $1 trillion +)
 * The currency is the Afghani
 * Highway 1 (Afghanistan) = 1400mi road connecting Kabul, Maidan Shar, Ghazni, Kandahar, Delaram, Herat, Maymana, Sheberghan, Mazari Sharif, Puli Khumri
 * Life expectancy is around 60yo
 * They follow the 'Pashtun way' (Pashtunwali
 * Bacha bazi = Relationships between younger and older men
 * Buddhas of Bamyan = 6th century monumental statues of the Buddha that were destroyed by the Taliban in 2001
 * Kabuli palaw is their national dish. Buzkashi is the national sport
 * Rumi was born in present-day Afg
 * The Afghan Hound originated there as an animal for wolf hunting

SU 10/05/20
 * Albanians call their country Shqipëri or Shqipëria ('Land of the eagles')
 * Albania probably comes from the tribe Albanoi
 * Historic inhabitants included the Ancient Greeks, Thracians and diverse Illyrian tribes
 * After Gentius clashed with the Romans in 168 BC, the Third Illyrian War saw Romans rule by 167 BC
 * Arbanon, established in 1190 under Progon of Kruja is considered the first form of an Albanian state
 * From the 12th to 15th century, most Albanians were fully Christianized but, in the 14th century the Ottoman Empire invaded
 * However, Skanderbeg was able to defeat major armies and established non-conquered territories to become 'Lord of Albania'
 * In the 17th - 18th centuries, Islamisation grew as the Ottomans established their sanjaks. Many Catholics converted under this rule
 * The Albanian Renaissance emerged in the 18th - 19th centuries with the Russian victory in the Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78
 * After the Treaty of San Stefano (to give bits of Albanian land to the Slavic and Greeks) was blocked with the Treaty of Berlin, Albanians started to organise themselves to protect their land through the League of Prizren
 * Albania declared independence from the Ottomans in 1912 (28/11)
 * Ismail Qemali was seen as their founding father (author of their declaration of independence)
 * Zog I of Albania (Ahmet Muhtar Zogu) = First and only king of Albania who reigned for 11 years from 1928 - 39
 * Germany occupied the country in 1943 and the communist-led National Liberation Movement (Albania) emerged. During the last years of the war, the country fell into a civil war-like state between these communists and the nationalists (Balli Kombëtar) working with Germany
 * After WW2, Albania essentially became a satellite state for the SU. After Stalin's death (1953), they developed nation with other countries e.g. China and saw an economic boom, including a new railway system
 * In 1967, PM Enver Hoxha and his anti-religious regime declared it the world's first atheist state
 * In 1992, the democratic party won the general elections. However, lots of capital was thrown into Ponzi schemes that were constantly defended by President Sali Berisha
 * These schemes collapsed in 96, leading anger amongst many investors and eventually violence in 1997 (Albanian Civil War)
 * This unrest led to the desertion of many police / military units and the looting of their armories
 * In 1997, Operation Alba (Italian for 'sunrise') was led by Italy to help restore law and order. They were helped by 10 others: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Greece, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Spain and Turkey and helped restructure the Albanian judicial system and police
 * After the fall of Communist Albania, Westernisation and increased workload has been implemented to help Albania get into EU and NATO (they joined NATO in 2009)
 * PM Edi Rama in 2017 advocated gender equality and around 50% of Albania's ministers are now female
 * Lake Skadar = Lake on the border of Albania and Montenegro and the largest lake in S. Europe
 * It is a karst lake (formed from the collapse of caves)
 * Biodiversity is very high, including the lynx, the brown bear and the national animal, the golden eagle
 * Prokletije ('Trojan Mountains') = Albanian alps
 * Albania is made out of 12 counties (the largest being Tirana County, with over 800k people)
 * The smallest is Gjirokastër County, with 70k people
 * In 2007, GWB became the first US president to visit the country
 * The lek is their currency
 * Tirana and Durrës constitute the economic and financial heart of Albania due to the population, infrastructure and location
 * Nearly half the population works in agriculture and they produce a lot of fruit, wine and medicinal plants
 * The tertiary sector is growing very fast with more jobs in banks and in telecomms
 * ~ 95% the country's electricity consumption comes from hydoelectric stations
 * With communism and the unrest of 1990s, they suffered brain drain and many profs and scientists left the country
 * They have free universal healthcare for all. The life expectancy is 78yo and more than half die from cardiovascular disease
 * At 1.5 children per woman, they have one of the lowest fertility rates
 * As well as Albanians, Greek and English are also spoken as secondary languages. In recent years, younger people are interested in learning German too
 * Around 80% still have some belief in God
 * Ti Shqipëri, më jep nder, më jep emrin Shqipëtar (national motto) = "You Albania, you give me honor, you give me the name Albanian"
 * The national dish is a variety of lamb and rice (Tavë kosi)
 * Albania has more coffee houses per capita than any other country in the world
 * Albanian folk music can be divided into two groups: Gheg Albanian (North), and Labëria and Tosk Albanian (South). Each are famous for Albanian iso-polyphony
 * Famous contemporary artists Rita Ora, Bebe Rexha, Era Istrefi, Dua Lipa. Ermonela Jaho was described as the "world's most acclaimed soprano" in 2016
 * Gjon Buzuku = 16th century Catholic priest who wrote the first Albanian book (Meshari in 1555)
 * The most famous contemporary novelist is Ismail Kadare
 * Famous Albanian-American actors include Eliza Dushku and John Belushi (and Jim)
 * In Kosovo, Albanians are the largest ethnic group
 * Overall, the number of ethnic Albanians living abroad is estimated to be higher than their local population

MO 11/05/20
 * Algeria is the 10th largest country in the world by area (+ largest in Africa)
 * It gets its name from the capital, Algiers, which is from the Arabic al-Jazāʾir (الجزائر) meaning 'The Islands'
 * The earliest blade industries in North Africa are called Iberomaurusian (located mainly in the Oran region). Eventually, the North Africans coalesced into a distinct native population (Berbers)
 * For several centuries Romans ruled Algeria and founded many colonies. Like the rest of N. Africa, Algeria was one of their breadbaskets - exporting cereals / other agricultural products
 * In the 8th century, the Umayyad Caliphates took over and people started converting to Islam. By the 10th century, most were muslim
 * Later, the Fatimid Caliphate arrived but part of their group, the Zirid dynasty, seceded and had to be defeated
 * In the early 1500s, Spain took over a few coastal towns but Algeria was mainly ruled by Ottomans for three centuries from 1516 to 1830
 * Initially, they were led by Hayreddin Barbarossa and his brother Oruç Reis who made Algiers their base
 * Despite being removed from Algeria in the 19th century after many battles, Spain retained a presence in Morocco. Algeria consistently opposed Spanish fortresses and control in nearby Morocco through the 20th century
 * In the 1790s, Hussein Dey and Pierre Deval (diplomat) discussed money owed to Dey by the French. After Deval dodged answering, Dey hit him with his fly-whisk (swatter) and triggered the French conquest of Algeria
 * In 1830, the French invaded and captured Algiers
 * From 1848 to independence, France claimed all of Algeria. One of France's longest-held overseas territories, it became a destination for hundreds of thousands of European immigrants, with most settling in Oran and Algiers
 * Tensions between Muslims and Europeans started to come to a head with the Sétif and Guelma massacre in 1945 and the Algerian War 1954 - 1962
 * Évian Accords = 18 March 1962 treaty that gave Algeria independence from France
 * Sand War = 1963 dispute between Morocco and Algeria when Morocco claimed Algeria's Tindouf and Béchar provinces
 * Ahmed Ben Bella was Algeria's first president (1963 - 65) but was overthrown by his defence minister Houari Boumédiène who introduced collective farming and launched a massive industrialization drive
 * The third president, Chadli Bendjedid, called for Arabisation / the return of Islam being taught and also launched a multi-party system
 * Islamic Salvation Front (Front Islamique du Salut / FIS) = Party that appeared to be winning the 1992 election when a military coup dismantled them. The leaders were Abbassi Madani (targeting pious businessmen) and Ali Belhadj (appealing tothe angry, often unemployed youth)
 * FIS were banned and this led to civil unrest with FIS' armed forces (Armed Islamic Group of Algeria / AIS) fighting the military
 * AIS also hijacked Air France Flight 8969 in 1994, killing 3 on board and planned to blow the plane up over the Eiffel tower
 * There was a ceasefire in 1997 and the 1999 elections saw Abdelaziz Bouteflika become president for 20 years (99 to his resignation in 2019)
 * In 2011, he lifted Algeria's 19yo state of emergency
 * Mount Tahat = Highest point in Algeria (3,003 m)
 * To the North, they have the Saharan Atlas and in the South, the Hoggar Mountains
 * Elected politicians have little power. Instead, a group of unelected civilian and military "décideurs" ("deciders") AKA "le pouvoir" ("the power"), rule the country and decide who should be president
 * Service in the military is compulsory for men aged 19–30, for a total of 12 months
 * Most of their weapons come from their close ally, Russia
 * The currency is the Algerian dinar
 * Algeria's economy relies on petroleum and they have struggled to develop industries outside hydrocarbons (due to high costs and an inert state bureaucracy). They've been a member of OPEC since 1969
 * Sonatrach = Algeria's national oil company and the largest company in Africa. All foreign operators must work in partnership with them
 * Tassili n'Ajjer = National park in SE Algeria (in the Sahara) famous for prehistoric art, including depictions of crocodiles, cattle herds, and humans who engage in activities such as hunting and dancing
 * ~ 90% of Algerians live in the north of the country. Many women, increasingly, are contributing more to household income than men
 * Most of the population are Berber with an Arab-influenced culture. Most of the Pied-Noir ('black feet'; French people born in Algeria from 1830 to 1962) left after independence
 * Pied-noir either comes from sailors working barefoot in the coal room of a ship or the black boots of the French compared to the barefoot Algerians
 * Albert Camus was born in Dréan (then known as Mondovi) to poor Pied-Noir parents. He was always a French citizen but studied philosophy at Algiers 1 University
 * Arabic and Berber are the official languages
 * The Kabyle language (the main Berber variant) is taught in schools but French is the lingua franca
 * Algeria is the second-largest Francophone country in the world in terms of speakers - around 60% of them can speak or understand it
 * Algiers (2.5 m), Oran (800k) and Constantine (450k) are the three biggest cities
 * Mohammed Dib (1920 - 2003) was probably their most famous writer, focusing on Algeria's fight for independence
 * Ahlam Mosteghanemi has been described as the 'world's best-known arabophone woman novelist'
 * Ibn Khaldun (1332 - 1406), though born in Tunis, wrote the first social science book (Muqaddimah (1377)) in Algeria. He has been described as the founder of historiography, sociology, economics, and demography and greatly influenced Niccolò Machiavelli
 * The famous music is Chaabi. This emerged in the 1930s and features mournful, Arabic vocals, set against an orchestral backdrop of a dozen musicians, with violins and mandolins swelling and falling to a piano melody and the clap of percussion beats
 * El Hadj M'Hamed El Anka (1907 - 1978) = The undisputed master of Chaabi
 * Z (1969 film) = Movie about the assassination of Greek doctor, politician and Olympic athlete Grigoris Lambrakis by right-wing zealots. It won 2 Oscars (Best foreign language film + best editing)
 * Football is the most popular sport and Fantasia and rifle shooting are popular activities
 * Fantasia AKA Tbourida = Performance where horses are rode in a straight path to form a line. At the end of the charge, the traditionally-attired riders fire into the sky using old muskets or muzzle-loading rifles to make it sound like a single shot
 * Tbourida is present in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Mali, Niger, and Mauritania but is often seen at Maghrebi weddings
 * Couscous is considered the national dish
 * Although the poor get free healthcare, poor sanitation and unclean water still causes tuberculosis, hepatitis, measles, typhoid fever, cholera and dysentery
 * Education is compulsory between 6 - 15. Arabic is the main language but French and English are often used for sciences

TU 12/05/20
 * American Samoa is an unincorporated territory of the United States consisting of 5 islands. It is slightly larger than Washington DC and is the US' southernmost territory
 * The five volcanic islands are Tutuila (largest), Aunu'u, Ofu, Olosega, and Ta‘ū
 * The capital is Pago Pago
 * AS has the highest military enlistment rate in the US
 * Contact with Europeans began in the early 18th century after Jacob Roggeveen sighted the islands in 1722, calling them the 'Baumann Islands' after one of his captains
 * Initial rivalries between Samoans and Europeans lessened by the 20th century when Samoa was partitioned by Germany and the US via the Tripartite Convention (1899)
 * The US took their portion shortly after, wanting the Pago Pago harbour. They let the people choose the name AS
 * In 1918, during the Spanish flu outbreak, AS responded well through John Martin Poyer's early quarantine. Neighbouring NZ suffered the most of all Pacific islands (90% infected)
 * During WW2, US marines stationed in AS outnumbered the local population and became a big influence on youngsters
 * In 1925, Margaret Mead arrived in AS to begin Coming of Age in Samoa (1928) which became the mostly widely read book in anthropology
 * LBJ Tropical Medical Center = The only hospital in AS (as LBJ was the only president to visit). There is also a school named after Lady Bird Johnson
 * Mike Pence made a stopover in 2017. Hillary Clinton stopped there in 2010
 * 2009 Samoa earthquake and tsunami = The largest earthquake of the year
 * The Governor of AS acts as the head of government - the US president only serves as the Head of State
 * The fa'amatai and the fa'asamoa are the traditional village politics. They're seen across AS and Samoa
 * 'aiga = Samoan family unit: very extended family led by chiefs (matai)
 * Samoa used to be called Western Samoa but this was changed. AS say this affects their own identity and still call Samoa 'Western Samoa'
 * Lata Mountain = Highest peak (970m)
 * Tuna canning is the backbone of the American Samoa economy (mainly through StarKist)
 * The maximum speed limit on their highways is 30mph
 * There is only one ZIP code needed: 967799
 * ~99% of AS residents are Christians
 * English is the official language, but Samoan is used for the day-to-day
 * Kilikiti = Samoan cricket where the ball is made of Pandanus. The teams can be any size and gender / age (based on who's around). Singing and dancing is also often incorporated
 * Tony Solaita = First AS player to play Major League Baseball
 * With over 950 species of native fish and 250 coral species, AS has the greatest marine biodiversity in the US
 * They also have many more bird species than all reptiles, mammals and amphibians combines
 * 16 of these bird types are unique to Samoa, including the Tooth-billed pigeon
 * There are also pacific boa and flying megabat
 * In 1992, hunting fruit bats was banned to help their numbers recover
 * AS use US dollars and feature a bald eagle clutching a war club and fly-whisk on their flag


 * Andorra was believed to have been created by Charlemagne
 * It is a diarchy (headed by Spanish and French leadership)
 * Andorra la Vella is the highest capital in Europe (1,023m)
 * The official language is Catalan, but Spanish, Portuguese, and French are also spoken
 * Life expectancy is often the highest in the world (83.5 yo)
 * The etymology of Andorra is unknown - it is hypothesised to come from the Basque 'handia' (big / giant). Others claim it is from Arabic al-darra (الدرة -> "thickly wooded place")
 * Traditionally, people believe Charlemagne named it as a biblical reference to Endor (where the Midianites had been defeated)
 * After the fall of the Roman Empire, Andorra came under the influence of the Visigoths who spread Christianity
 * After the French Revolution, Andorra saw a 'New Reform' under Guillem d'Areny-Plandolit who replaced the aristocratic rulers and gave everyone the right to vote at regular elections
 * During WW1, Andorra declared war on Imperial Germany but did not directly fight (some fought alongside the French)
 * In 1933, France occupied Andorra following social unrest
 * In 1934, Russian Boris Skossyreff attempted to seize the monarchy and called himself Boris I of Andorra. He was supported by local citizens / government
 * After a few days, he was deposed by Spanish authorities
 * During the Spanish Civil War, many people moved to Andorra and caused an economic boom and the entry into the capitalist era of Andorra
 * Andorra remained neutral during WW2
 * The capitalist economy saw mass tourism and tax exemption. Banks were created and ski resorts became popular attractions - this became known as the 'Andorran dream' era
 * Tourism still accounts for 80% of GDP
 * Ràdio Andorra became the number one transmitter musical radio station in Europe during this period
 * They use the Euro even though they aren't in the EU (they have a 'special relationship' and Andorra has no tariffs on European trade)
 * Andorra is a parliamentary co-principality with the president of France and the Catholic bishop of Urgell (Catalonia, Spain) as co-princes
 * Responsibility for defending the nation rests primarily with France and Spain - Andorra has no army (only one for ceremonies)
 * In an emergency (e.g. France and Spain being wiped out), they will sound an alarm and assemble an army of able-bodied men
 * The head of the household should, by law, keep a rifle
 * They were not mentioned in the Treaty of Versailles so technically remained at war with Germany from 1914 to 1958 before declaring peace (they were therefore the longest combatant)
 * They have a small but well-equipped 240 police officers, supported by civilian assistants. They have around 120 firefighters
 * Grup d'Intervenció Policia d'Andorra (GIPA) = Andorra's counter-terrorism arm
 * Andorra consists of seven parishes: Andorra la Vella, Canillo, Encamp, Escaldes-Engordany, La Massana, Ordino, Sant Julià de Lòria
 * Coma Pedrosa = Highest point (2,943m)
 * ~90% are Catholics and the patron saint is Our Lady of Meritxell (who also appears in the anthem and gives the name to the national holiday on 08 Sep)
 * The Universitat d'Andorra (UdA) is the only university
 * The nearest major airports are at Toulouse and Barcelona are both three hours' drive (or bus) from Andorra
 * Escudella (Catalan meat and veg stew) is often considered Andorra's national dish
 * Winter sports, rugby and football are popular (FC Andorra play in the Spanish league)
 * They also build human towers (Castell) during Catalonian festivals


 * Angola comes from the Portuguese colonial name Reino de Angola ('Kingdom of Angola') which dates back to the 16th century
 * Ngola was a title for the ruler of the Kingdom of Ndongo
 * Early populations comprised of the Khoi and San people
 * Diogo Cão reached the area in 1484 and the Portuguese began to establish ownership along the Angolan coast to trade Angolan slaves for Brazilian plantations
 * The slave trade was abolished in Angola in 1836, and in 1854 the colonial government freed all its existing slaves. 4 years later, all slavery was ended
 * The Berlin Conference (1885) set the borders for Portugal's claims but were continuously disputed
 * The FNLA (National Liberation Front of Angola) was founded in 1954 by Holden Roberto to gain independence
 * In 1956, the Marxist–Leninist MPLA was founded to fight Portugal in the 1961 - 74 Angolan War of Independence
 * In the 60s, Jonas Savimbi formed UNITA to wage guerrilla war against the Portuguese rulers (1966 - 74)
 * Factionalism amongst the 3 parties (and backed variously by Cuba, the US and the SU) led to the Angolan Civil War 1975 - 2002
 * The FNLA was largely annihilated from the fighting
 * Eventually, the Bicesse Accords scheduled new general elections for 1992. However, when the MPLA won, UNITA objected and continued to fight (Halloween massacre)
 * Savimbi was killed in 2002 and a ceasefire was reached shortly after
 * Democratic stabilization only occurred following the 2008 and 2012 elections and the new constitution in 2010
 * As a result of the prolonged war, there are still several minefields
 * Drought in 2016 caused the worst food crisis in Southern Africa in 25 years and malnutrition rates doubled due to the price hike in food and drink
 * José Eduardo dos Santos (MPLA) = President of Angola from 1979 - 2017. He was replaced by his chosen successor João Lourenço
 * Lourenço has sacked many of the old personnel, including daughter of former president and African's richest woman Isabel dos Santos, to cement his power and legacy
 * Since 2010, the winning president and VP of the political party automatically carry there roles forward (rather than having presidential elections seperately)
 * Angola is a founding member of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP) AKA the Lusophone Commonwealth
 * In 2019, homosexuality was decriminalized and the government prohibited discrimination based on sexual orientation
 * Major provinces include Luanda Province, Huíla Province, Benguela Province and Huambo Province
 * Angola is sometimes called the 'Kuwait of Africa' due to its oil. Most of this was discovered by the Portugese in the 60s and 70s
 * The economy has recently started to recover and is the fastest-growing economy in Africa and one of the fastest growing in the world
 * Diamonds and oil make up 60% of Angola's economy
 * China has been helping build their infrastructure and are Angola's biggest trade partner and export destination
 * In 2020, the 'Luanda Leaks' showed that major US consulting companies (including BCG and M&C) helped dos Santos (father and daughter) corruptly run Sonangol for their own personal profit
 * Before their 1975 independence, they were a breadbasket of Southern Africa exporting bananas and coffee. It now depends on imports, mainly from SA and Portugal. Many local farmers remain poor
 * This is because the war destroyed fertile countryside, left landmines and drove millions into the cities
 * TAAG Angola Airlines = National carrier
 * The war has also ruined roads and you often need a 4 x 4 to get through the potholed, broken roads
 * Transport (due to the location) is a major future area of development
 * AngoSat 1 = Angola's first communications satellite
 * Major ethnic groups include Ovimbundu (37%), Ambundu (23%) and Bakongo (13%)
 * There are also groups of Portugese, Chinese and Brazilians
 * Fertility rate is close to 6 children per woman
 * The government does not legally recognize Muslim organizations and often shuts down mosques / stops construction
 * After Luanda (7m), the largest cities are Lubango, Huambo and Benguela - each around 600k
 * Angola has one of the highest infant mortality rates in the world and one of the world's lowest life expectancies
 * Epidemics of cholera, malaria, rabies, Marburg virus etc. are common
 * There was a major yellow fever outbreak in 2015
 * During the civil war, nearly 50% of schools were looted and destroyed, leading to current overcrowding
 * Teachers tend to be underpaid, inadequately trained and overworked
 * The currency is the Kwanza
 * Chicken muamba (chicken stew) is the national dish
 * Agostinho Neto (1922 - 1979) = 1st president of Angola (75 - 79)
 * Luandino Vieira was awarded the Camões Prize in 2006 but declined (+ $128K prize money) for "personal and intimate reasons"
 * Sambizanga (1972) is set during the 1961 war of independence and is Angola's most famous film
 * Basketball is the most popular sport and Angola is one of the top teams in Africa

13/05/20
 * Antigua and Barbuda is a member of the Commonwealth and means 'Ancient and Bearded' in Spanish
 * Antigua is the southern island, Barbuda is the northern one
 * It was originally called Wadadli by the Arawaks and is still called that locally
 * The first hunter-gatherers who settled there were called the Ciboney people and introduced agriculture. The bellicose Caribs later settle on the island too, possibly by force
 * Christopher Columbus was the first European to sight the islands in 1493
 * Most of the natives were killed off by slavery and smallpox and the English settled there in 1632 where W. African slaves were recruited to grow tobacco / sugar
 * Eventually, they outnumbered the Europeans and slavery was abolished in 1834
 * On 1 November 1981, A&B became independent and Vere Bird became PM. His son, Lester Bird was next but the family was accused of corruption
 * Another of VB's sons was accused of smuggling Israeli weapons to Colombian drug-traffickers and Ivor Bird (other son) was convicted of selling cocaine in 1995
 * Hurricane Luis = 1995 hurricane that severely damaged Barbuda. There is usually a hurricane a year
 * In 2017, most of Barbuda was destroyed by Hurricane Irma; almost everyone (~2,000 people) was evacuated to Antigua
 * Lower classes speak Antiguan Creole but English is generally spoken by all and Spanish by some
 * A&B is split into 6 parishes: Saint George, Saint John, Saint Mary, Saint Paul, Saint Peter and Saint Philip
 * Tourism is the main GDP driver. Recently, banks have also been built - including Stanford Financial Group (Allen's Ponzi scheme)
 * > 90% literacy rate, cricket is the national sport and fungie (pr. "foon-jee" AKA Cou-cou) and pepper is the national dish
 * The roads in the country are winding and full of potholes. They drive on the left
 * Jamaica Kincaid = Antiguan-American novelist / garden writer
 * Vivian Richards, Andy Roberts, Curtly Ambrose and Richie Richardson are from A&B


 * By area, Argentina is the 8th largest country and it is the largest Spanish-speaking nation
 * > 60% of people have some Italian ancestry
 * The name comes from the Spanish for '(made) of silver'
 * Sierra de la Plata ('Silver mountains') = Mythical source of silver in S. America
 * Human life has been there since the Paleolithic period
 * The first group were basic hunter-gatherers (including Selknam and Yaghan people). Then there were more advanced food gatherers like the Puelche and Querandi. Finally, there were farmers with pottery like the Charrúa, Minuane and Guaraní
 * Europeans first arrived in 1502 with Amerigo Vespucci
 * British invasions of the River Plate (1806-07) = Failed attempts to control Argentina and Uruguay
 * In 1810, the May Revolution established a local government in place of the Viceroy (Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros).
 * On 9 July 1816, they formalized their Declaration of Independence and became independent
 * Bernardino Rivadavia (1780 - 1845) = First President of Argentina in 1826. He was removed soon after by the civil war fighting between the centralists and federalists
 * After the 1861 Battle of Pavón, Bartolomé Mitre became president of the reunified country
 * In the 1870s, General Julio Argentino Roca led the Conquest of the Desert to kill and conquer the indigenous people
 * In the late 19th century, Argentina promoted massive European immigration that led to the becoming a developed nation and the 7th wealthiest in the world by 1908
 * The 1930 Argentine coup d'état (AKA September Revolution) saw Hipólito Yrigoyen overthrown by General José Félix Uriburu's forces
 * Uriburu ruled for 2 years in a highly corrupt regime and set Argentina back into underdevelopment
 * They stayed neutral for most of WW2 but then declared war on the Axis power a month before the end of the war
 * Juan Domingo Perón was fired as minister of welfare and jailed. He was hugely popular and would go on to win the 1946 election to create the movement known as Peronism
 * Eva Perón became extremely popular because she pushed for the women's vote (enacted in 1947) and also developed the most vulnerable sectors of society
 * Her declining health did not allow her to run for VP in 1951 and she died in 1952
 * JDP was re-elected in 1951 and in 1955 the navy tried to kill him at the Bombing of Plaza de Mayo
 * A few months later he was forced into exile by another coupe; Revolución Libertadora
 * The new head of State, Pedro Eugenio Aramburu banned all Peronism and this forced it to be organized underground
 * After Peronism being banned / allowed by various presidents, Juan Carlos Onganía, through a 1966 coup d'état (Argentine Revolution), sought to rule indefinitely. It ended in 1973
 * US-backed state terrorism started in 1976 with the Dirty War as part of Operation Condor where right-wingers hunted down socialists and those associated with left-wing Peronism
 * > 30k people 'disappeared' as the sate terrorism meant official reports weren't made
 * Argentina received aid from the Johnson, Nixon, Ford, Carter, and Reagan administrations
 * In 1969, popular discontent led to two massive protests: the Cordobazo and the Rosariazo
 * Montoneros (left-wing terrorists) kidnapped and executed Aramburu
 * In 1973, Héctor José Cámpora briefly became president and arranged for the return of Perón
 * Ezeiza massacre = When Perón returned to Buenos Aires on 20/06/73, right-wing snipers killed 10+ people of the many who had gathered to greet him
 * Perón won the 1973 election with his third wife Isabel Perón as VP. He expelled Montoneros from the party on 01/05/73
 * He died in 1974 and his wife took over but wan ousted a year later by another junta: the 1976 Argentine coup d'état, who launched 'Proceso' (National Reorganization Process)
 * They resorted to forced disappearances of those they though were associated with the left-wing
 * The Falklands War started in 1982 and Argentina surrendered after 10 weeks. Due to the humiliation, the military leadership stood down and Reynaldo Bignone (sentenced to 25 years in 2010 for his role in the Dirty war) was President for a year
 * The economy started getting worse in the 80s-90s. The December 2001 riots in Argentina saw civil unrest and violence with people asking for the gov to be removed, shouting "All of them must go!" (Spanish: ¡Que se vayan todos!)
 * Néstor Kirchner was elected as president in 2003 and helped Argentina recover economically until 2007, when his wife (Cristina Fernández de Kirchner) took over as president until 2015 (replaced by Mauricio Macri)
 * Macri was the first non-radical / non-peronist president since 1916. He was replaced by Alberto Fernández in 2019
 * Between 1930 and 1976, the armed forces overthrew six governments in Argentina as they alternated between democracy and military rule
 * Aconcagua (6,960m) = Highest mountain outside of Asia
 * Argentina is very biodiverse and has the Argentine Dogo, Jaguars, Andean condors and Magellanic penguins
 * Argentina is a federation of twenty-three provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires
 * Argentina controls part of Tierra del Fuego alongside Chile but they also claim an area of Antarctica and the Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
 * Military service is voluntary, with enlistment age between 18 and 24 years old and no conscription
 * They have the third highest economy in Latin America (after Brazil and Mexico)
 * Manufacturing counts for ~20% of GDP but a lot is apparently produced by child / forced labour
 * They are a top five wine-producing country
 * Argentina has the largest railway system in Latin America
 * Buenos Aires Underground (AKA Subte) = First underground railway in Latin America, the Southern Hemisphere and the Spanish speaking world
 * Bernardo Houssay (1887 - 1971) = Physiologist who was awarded a Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1947 for discovering the role of pituitary hormones in regulating glucose in animals
 * Their other Nobel-winning scientists are Luis Federico Leloir (discovered how organisms store energy converting glucose into glycogen) and César Milstein (antibody / immune system research)
 * Domingo Liotta = Created the first total artificial heart used in a human being
 * René Favaloro = Cardiac surgeon who pioneered coronary artery bypass surgery using the great saphenous vein
 * Luis Agote (1868 - 1954) = Devised the first safe and effective means of blood transfusion in 1914
 * Argentina is transitioning to an older, slower-growing population
 * In 2010, Argentina became the first country in Latin America, the second in the Americas, and the tenth worldwide to legalize same-sex marriage
 * The country is sometimes called a 'crisol de razas' (crucible of races - i.e. a melting pot) due to the mass immigration wave from the 1850s-1950s. These were mainly from Spain & Italy but there are also Arab Argentines from Syria / Leabanon
 * Lunfardo = Slang used by lower class BA citizens that developed from criminal speech
 * Most people are Catholic but more people are becoming nonreligious. 92% live in cities
 * The largest cities are Buenos Aires (3m), Córdoba, Rosario (both ~1.5m) and Mendoza (1m)
 * Jorge Luis Borges (1899 - 1986) = Most well-known Argentine writer
 * Other influential writers include Julio Cortázar, Victoria Ocampo and Adolfo Bioy Casares
 * Tango originated in Argentina / Uruguay
 * Martha Argerich = Classical concert pianist and considered one of the greatest of all time
 * BA is very famous for its theatres on Avenida Corrientes ('the street that never sleeps')
 * In BA (1946) Gyula Košice founded the Madí movement which then spread to Europe / US
 * The Petronas Towers and the Wells Fargo Center (Minneapolis) were designed by César Pelli
 * Pato = National sport. It is an ancient horseback game from the 1600s that is like a cross between polo and basketball
 * Football, tennis and basketball are also very popular
 * They are generally considered the best Polo team
 * Carlos Monzón AKA Escopeta / shotgun (1942 - 1995) = One of the greatest ever middleweight boxers. He was accused of domestic violence by his wives and charged with killing one by throwing her off a balcony
 * He died in a car crash when granted a weekend furlough to visit his children
 * Luciana Aymar = Field hockey player called 'La Maga' (the magician) and 'The Maradona of Hockey'
 * Los Pumas = Men's rugby team (came third in 2007 WC)
 * Asado (bbq steak) is the national dish. Argentina has the highest red meat consumption in the world


 * Armenia was originally called 'Hayk' (this is still used but very rarely) and later Hayastan
 * This was from legendary patriach / founder of Armenia Hayk (g.g. grandson of Noah)
 * Aram was apparently a descendant of Hayk and Aramenia became Armenia
 * The Areni-1 cave complex suggest civilisation from the Bronze Age. Inside, the Areni-1 shoe, oldest skirt and the Areni-1 winery have been found
 * Yerevan is the world's oldest city to have documented its foundation date (786 BC)
 * During the reign of Tiridates I, Armenia was a branch of the Parthian Empire. They used the 12mth Armenian calendar
 * Early religions were similar to Zoroastrianism where people worshiped Mithra
 * In AD 40, Tiridates III of Armenia made Christianity the state religion
 * It was the first officially Christian state, 10 years before Rome
 * After the Sasanian period (428–636), Armenia emerged as Arminiya, an autonomous principality under the Umayyad Caliphate
 * Dvin was the capital during the Middle Ages
 * In 1045, the Byzantine Empire conquered but they were beaten by the Seljuk Empire in 1071
 * n the early 12th century, Armenian princes of the Zakarid family drove out the Seljuk Turks and established a semi-independent principality in northern and eastern Armenia known as Zakarid Armenia
 * The Mongol Empire conquered them in the 1230s and then many other Central Asian tribes ruled until the 16th century when the country was divided: Western Armenia and Eastern Armenia
 * After the Russo-Persian War (1804–13) and the Russo-Persian War (1826–28) Iran handed E. Armenia over and it became Russian Armenia
 * The Ottomans still ruled over W. Armenia and Abdul Hamid II organised the Hamidian massacres against the Christians who were demanding more rights
 * Hamid became known as Red Sultan / Bloody Sultan
 * Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF) AKA Dashnaktsutyun = 1890s group that looked to advocate reform and stop massacres
 * In 1908, the Young Turk Revolution overthrew Hamid but later suffered the Adana massacre of 1909
 * From 1914 - 1923, the Ottoman government murdered > 1m Armenians in the Armenian Genocide
 * The young men were killed and the women / elderly and children were taken on death marches into the Syrian desert
 * Armenian Genocide denial = Dispute of the 1.5m deaths number and Turkey claiming genocide isn't the right word
 * Denial of the genocide is outlawed in Switzerland, Greece, Cyprus and Slovakia. Only Turkey and Azerbaijan deny it (Pakistan does not recognize Armenia as a country). The US have stayed neutral to keep good relations with Turkey
 * The 1920 Treaty of Sèvres saw new borders drawn by Woodrow Wilson and this became known as Wilsonian Armenia
 * Turkey invaded later in 1920. In 1921, Garegin Nzhdeh established the Republic of Mountainous Armenia. He is seen as a local hero but also fought for the Nazis in WW2 thinking it would be good for Armenian independence
 * Syunik (the south-most province) was included in Armenia's borders due to Nzhdeh's efforts
 * Armenia became Soviet in 1922 under Lenin and Stalin
 * When Stalin died in 1953, WW2 tensions in Soviet Armenia improved but people wanted more freedoms
 * In May 1990, the New Armenian Army (NAA) was established and soon clashed with the Soviet security forces already in place
 * On 21 Sep 1991, Armenia declared independence after the failed 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt
 * Levon Ter-Petrosyan AKA LTP = First president of Armenia (91 - 98). He led in the Nagorno-Karabakh War victory against Azerbaijan over the Armenian-populated Nagorno-Karabakh
 * There was a 1994 cease-fire but the status of Karabakh has yet to be determined and Armenia and Azerbaijan continue to talk about resolving the issue
 * Mount Ararat is in Turkey but Armenia consider it their national symbol
 * Relations are fairly ok with everyone except Turkey and Azerbaijan (borders with these neighbours are under severe blockade)
 * Armenia let Russia maintain a military base in the city of Gyumri in the NW. They also have a solid relationship with Iran and are building a gas pipeline together
 * 2018 Armenian revolution AKA #MerzhirSerzhin AKA The Velvet Revolution = Nikol Pashinyan-led protests against the republican government and the third consecutive stint as PM for Serzh Sargsyan
 * Pashinyan was arrested and held in solitary confinement for one day. He was elected PM after two votes took place in May 2018
 * Armenia is divided into ten provinces (marzer) with each including self-governing communities (hamaynkner)
 * The economy relies on investment and support from Armenians abroad
 * The currency is the Armenian dram
 * Although legacy problems from the 1988 Armenian earthquake and the Armenian energy crisis of 1990s still felt, the economy has improved after 1995
 * In the 1960s, the literacy rate was close to 100% and the University of Gladzor and University of Tatev were two ancient 'great centres of learning'
 * In the 90s, education became more focused on Armenian history / culture rather than the regimented Soviet system. Russian is still often learnt as a second language
 * There have been problems of population decline with emigration (8m outside Vs 3m inside)
 * The largest cities other than Yerevan are Gyumri, Vanadzor and Vagharshapat
 * Most are orthodox christians
 * Armenians have their own 39-letter alphabet that was invented in AD 405 by Mesrop Mashtots
 * Djivan Gasparyan = Famous duduk player
 * Yerevan Vernissage = Open-air market where you can buy arts and crafts
 * In 2013, FOP (freedom of panorama) was granted for 3D works of art
 * Popular sports include wrestling (called 'Kokh'), sambo, weightlifting, judo, association football, chess, and boxing
 * Harees / harisa (porridge made of wheat and meat cooked together) is consider the national dish


 * Australia is the 6th largest by Area. The name comes from the Latin Terra Australis ('southern land')
 * Until the early 19th century, it was known as 'New Holland' (named by Dutch explorer Abel Tasman)
 * Matthew Flinders (1774 - 1814) = English navigator who called it Australia
 * The Lucky Country has been used as a nickname based on the 1964 book title
 * "I love a sunburnt country//A land of sweeping plains,//Of ragged mountain ranges,//Of droughts and flooding rains" - My Country by Dorothea Mackellar (written when she was homesick in the UK)
 * Lake Mungo remains = The oldest human remains in Aus (41,000 yo) - they were related to the Aboriginal Australian (one of the oldest surviving civilisations)
 * The indigenous people believed in Dreamtime (a concept that encompasses past, present and future - AKA everywhen)
 * Duyfken = Dutch ship and first to reach Australia (captained by Willem Janszoon) in 1606
 * In 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast (calling it NSW and claiming it for England as a penal colony)
 * A British settlement was later set up at Van Diemen's Land (changed to Tasmania in 1856)
 * S. Australia was founded 'free' (never a penal colony)
 * The local population started dying from disease brought by the Europeans
 * In 1826, Britain claimed the whole Australian continent
 * In the 1850s, the Australian gold rushes began. In 1854, the Victorian miners revolted against the UK colonisers during the Eureka Rebellion
 * On Jan 01, 1901 the six colonies (Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia, and Western Australia) agreed to unite and form the Commonwealth of Australia (see Federation of Australia)
 * In 1914, Aus joined Britain in fighting WW1 but the ANZACs were defeated at Gallipoli
 * They fought the Japanese alongside the US in the 1942 Kokoda Track campaign
 * The Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942 gave Aus total constitutional control
 * From 1901 - 1973, there was a White Australia policy to stop non-European people entering
 * The Australian continent is currently moving toward Eurasia at the rate of 6 to 7 centimetres a year
 * Earthquakes are fairly rare - the 1989 Newcastle earthquake killed 13 and remains the most serious
 * 2000s Australian drought AKA Millenium drough = Probably the worst drought in Aus history. S. Aus was especially badly affected
 * Australia's carbon dioxide emissions per capita are among the highest in the world
 * Besides Antarctica, Australia is the only continent that developed without feline species
 * Feral cats came on the Dutch ships and are now highly invasive (people also keep them as pets)
 * Australia has the highest mammal extinction rate of any country
 * NZ, Canada and UK are viewed most favourably by Australian people
 * In 2018, Aus overtook Switzerland and became the country with the highest avg wealth. They have the world's 14th largest economy
 * The Aus dollar is the currency
 * Australia is a major exporter of agricultural products, particularly wheat and wool, minerals such as iron-ore and gold, and energy in the forms of liquified natural gas and coal
 * Their largest export markets are Japan, China, US, SK and NZ. They're the world's 4th largest wine exporter
 * The population density is about 3.3 persons per square kilometre of total land area
 * Most Australians live on the East Coast and most stay in Aus (only 2.14% live overseas)
 * They have an ageing population - the average is close to 40yo
 * The major cities are Sydney, Melbourne (5m+), Brisbane, Perth (2m+) and Adelaide (1.5m)
 * ~30% of the population are immigrants (the highest % for any nation with over 10m people)
 * Auslan = Australian sign language for the deaf
 * Over 50% are christian but many have no religion
 * Life expectancy is 80yo. In 1975, they introduced universal health care (Medicare)
 * Banjo Paterson (1864 - 1941) = Australian bush poet who wrote Waltzing Matilda in 1895
 * Henry Lawson was another famous bush poet and contemporary of Peterson. He was the first Aus writer given a state funeral
 * Miles Franklin (1879 = 1954) = Author of My Brilliant Career. The Miles Franklin Award is named after her
 * Nellie Melba (1861 - 1931) = One of the world's most famous operatic sopranos during the late Victorian era. She raised huge sums for war charities during WW1
 * She took 'Melba' from Melbourne (her home town)
 * The Story of the Kelly Gang (1906) = World's first feature length film
 * Australia was responsible for the flat white coffee. It originated in a Sydney cafe in the mid-1980s
 * Roast lamb is the national dish
 * Australia is one of five nations (+ France, GB, Greece and Switzerland) to have participated in every Summer Olympics of the modern era (they also hosted in 1956 in Melbourne and Sydney 2000)

TH 14/05/20
 * Austria comes from the Old High German for 'eastern realm' (Ostarrîchi). Today, it is locally called Österreich
 * Celtic tribes lived there in pre-Roman times. The Romans then claimed Noricum
 * Charlemagne conquered in AD 788 and introduced Christianity
 * After Rudolph I of Germany overthrew Ottokar II of Bohemia, Austria was ruled by the Habsburgs until WW1
 * The Habsburgs went on to acquire most of the Netherlands and Spain
 * Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor reigned from 1657 - 1705 and defeated the Turks in the 1683 Battle of Vienna. Shortly after, Austria controlled most of Hungary
 * His successor and brother Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor relinquished many of the gains made by the empire due to his apprehensions of the imminent extinction of the House of Habsburg
 * The Holy Roman Empire ended in 1806 after losing to Napoleon
 * The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 established a duel monarchy but ruling this became difficult due to emerging nationalist movements
 * A lot of people felt they were excluded from their Germanic identity and movements calling 'German' christians to leave the Roman Catholic Church emerged - e.g. Away from Rome
 * The Treaty of Versailles explicitly forbid union between Austria and Germany. In 1919, the first Austrian Republic was formed and lasted until 1933
 * After WW2, inflation began to devalue the Krone (former currency, they now use the Euro)
 * In 1925, the schilling replaced the Krone
 * The 1933 Self-elimination of the Austrian Parliament saw all three presidents of the National Council resin and civil war broke out between the Social Democrats and the Conservatives shortly after
 * In 1934, Kurt Schuschnigg became chancellor and wanted Austria to remain independent from Nazi rule
 * In 1938, the Nazis took over and he was imprisoned. On Vienna's Heldenplatz, Hitler announced a 'reunification' of his home country with the rest of the German Reich
 * Vienna fell during the 1945 Vienna Offensive and independence was declared 26 Oct 1955
 * Kurt Waldheim (1918 - 2007) = Austrian president 1986 - 1992 who was a Nazi
 * Fit 18 yo males have to do 6 months military service and act as reserves for 8 years. You can also be a Conscientious objector
 * There are 9 states in Austria, from largest: Vienna, Lower Austria, Upper Austria, Styria, Tyrol, Carinthia, Salzburg, Vorarlberg and Burgenland
 * GDP per capita is high due to the industrialised economy (also driven by tourism)
 * In 1978, they started building a nuclear-powered electricity-generation station and completed it a few years later but a referendum voted against nuclear power
 * Hydropower is the main source of electricity
 * After Vienna, the largest two cities are Graz (270m) and Linz (200m). Salzburg is 4th largest with 150m
 * The population is quite old - avg age is > 40yo
 * Austro-Bavarian is the most commonly spoken language even through Standard Austrian German is used in education
 * Most Austrians now have their own identity but some still feel German and advocate for a Greater Germany
 * Turks and Serbs are the largest immigrant groups
 * Most Austrians are Christians but atheism is rising (now over 20%). Islam is ~10%
 * Famous composers include Joseph Haydn, Michael Haydn, Franz Schubert, Anton Bruckner, Johann Strauss, Sr. and Johann Strauss, Jr.
 * Vienna was the centre of European music in the 18th- and 19th-century, when composers were drawn there due to the patronage of the Habsburgs
 * The original national anthem was by Haydn but replaced by a Mozart one after WW2
 * Falco (1957 - 1998) = Famous popstar in the 80s. He died in the Dominican Republic when his car collided with a bus
 * Hedy Lamarr (1914 - 2000, from Vienna) and Arnold Schwarzenegger (from Thal, Austria) had major success in Hollywood
 * Lamarr also co-invented an early version of frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
 * Famous scientists include Ludwig Boltzmann, Ernst Mach, Victor Franz Hess, Christian Doppler, Lise Meitner, Erwin Schrödinger, Wolfgang Pauli, Konrad Lorenz and Kurt Gödel
 * Ludwig Wittgenstein and Karl Popper are also from there
 * Stefan Zweig (1881 - 1942) was one of the most popular novelists
 * The Vienna Schnitzel is the national dish
 * Pez was invented in Austria and Almdudler is one of their most popular soft drinks. They also invented Red Bull
 * The national sport is alpine skiing
 * Niki Lauda was the only champion to have won for both Ferrari and McLaren. He was a 3 time F1 World Champion (75, 77, 84)
 * Thomas Muster was one of the greatest clay court tennis players. Thiem is also from Austria

FR 15/05/20
 * Azerbaijan is named after a Persian nobleman under ATG called Atropates
 * Atropates probably meant 'Protector of the holy fire'
 * Early settlements included the Scythians in the 9th century BC and, later, Iranian Medes
 * The Achaemenid Empire took over and introduced Zoroastrianism. This spread further under ATG's rule
 * Pre-Turkic people spoke Caucasian languages such as Armenian
 * In 1067, the Seljuk Empire established the first Turkic dynasty in the country
 * The Shirvanshahs ruled for many years (until the 1500s)
 * The Russians started attacking Azerbaijan (under Iranian rule) in the 1804 Battle of Ganja. The Russian empire collapsed after WW1
 * In 1918, the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (ADR) declared independence
 * In 1920, Soviet Russia (under Vladimir Lenin) invaded Baku to get their oil. Azerbaijanis fought bravely and lost over 20k soldiers
 * During WW2, 80% of SU oil on the Eastern Front was supplied by Baku (which also became a key attack target for the Germans)
 * 1/5 of Azerbaijanis fought in WW2, including > 100k women. Many soldiers were named Heroes of the SU, including Major-General Hazi Aslanov
 * After the 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt, they declared independence on 18 October
 * Early independence was overshadowed by the Nagorno-Karabakh war and Armenia controlled ~20% of Azerbaijan
 * Ayaz Mutallibov = 1st President (91 - 92). He has been exiled in Moscow since (but returned in 2011) to attend his son's funeral
 * In 1993, Abulfaz Elchibey was overthrown by the military and Heydar Aliyev became third president and also survived 2 junta attempts. He was considered corrupt (rigging elections etc.)
 * After Heydar's death in 2003, son Ilham Aliyev has been president
 * Mount Bazarduzu = Highest point
 * Yanar Dag ('burning mountain') = Natural gas fire which blazes continuously near Baku
 * Karabakh horse = National animal - it has ancestry dating to the ancient world but is now endangered (< 1,000)
 * Caviar diplomacy = Term given to Azerbaijan's lobbying strategy: they lavish foreign politicians and present them as a 'tribute to Eastern tradition' even though they're basically bribes - e.g. millions of USD given to PM Joseph Muscat of Malta in 2017 (see also Panda diplomacy for China)
 * Azerbaijan is divided into 10 economic regions. The largest cities after Baku (2m+) are Sumqayit and Ganja (both 325k)
 * The manat is the currency
 * Azerbaijan shows some signs 'Dutch disease' because of its fast-growing energy sector, which causes inflation and makes non-energy exports more expensive
 * Azerbaijan is considered one of the most important spots in the world for oil exploration and development and they have many partnerships with major oil firms such as BP and ExxonMobil
 * Veg and wine are produced in the agriculture sector and tourism has been increasing since 2000, becoming a major component of Azerbaijan's future plans
 * The Azerbaijani language is spoken as a mother tongue by 90%+. Russian and English are the other major languages used in education and communication
 * Most of the country are Shia muslims (85% of all their Muslims which is 2nd only to Iran). However, it is a secular state and considered the least religious muslim-majority country in the world
 * Novruz Bayrami = National holiday celebrating the new year and the coming of spring. Nowruz is originally the Persian NY (and came from Zoroastrianism)
 * Music builds on folk traditions (e.g. mugham and meykhana) and monody (single vocal) is a popular technique. It's similar to Iranian style
 * Pop music (influenced by the West) has been growing since the 1960s. They appeared in Eurovision 2008 (and came 3rd in 2009)
 * Nizami Ganjavi (1141 - 1209) = 12th century poet who was known for his epic poems. Azerbaijani literature was founded by Izzeddin Hasanoglu
 * Azerbaijani rugs are famous pieces of handmade art (also recognised by UNESCO)
 * Pilaf is the national dish. They drink black tea from a pear-shaped glass called an armudu
 * The Baku Metro opened in 1967 and has SU motifs and exquisite decorations. 27 people were killed by Armenians in the 1994 Baku Metro bombings
 * The Gamigaya Petroglyphs are some of the oldest art ever found
 * They were one of the first countries involved in cinematography. Their film industry dates back to 1898 and Baku regularly hosts film festivals
 * Freedom of speech is claimed but actually denied. The media are gagged and all foreign broadcasts are banned
 * The national sport is freestyle wrestling. Football is the most popular
 * They are also very respected in chess, producing skilled players like Teimour Radjabov and the late Vugar Gashimov. Garry Kasparov was born in Baku

SA 16/05/20
 * Bahamas originates from ba ha ma ('big upper middle land' in taíno)
 * The Taino people (later known as Lucayan people) were the first inhabitants. Columbus arrived in 1492 and claimed the islands for the Crown of Castile
 * The Lucayans were used as slaves and most died from smallpox and harsh labour conditions
 * In 1648, Puritan English settlers arrived (the Eleutheran Adventurers led by William Sayle) to seek greater religious freedom
 * Pirates such as Blackbeard gained enough of a stronghold in early-1700s Nassau to form a Republic of Pirates. In 1718, GB made them a crown colony
 * Spain attacked Nassau in 1720 and the US targeted the during their war of independence to harm GB
 * The British abolished slavery in 1834 but US slaves were also freed onto the island after revolts - e.g. Creole
 * Creole case = 1841 slave revolt where 128 slaves were freed to Nassau. Considered the most successful US slave revolt ever
 * In the early 20th century, many locals struggled with poverty
 * Edward VIII was appointed Governor of The Bahamas in 1940. He hated this role and called the islands it a "third-class British colony". He resigned in 1945
 * The first political parties were formed in the 1950s, largely based on ethnicity - United Bahamian Party (UBP AKA the 'bay street boys') for whites and Progressive Liberal Party (PLP) for blacks
 * Roland Theodore Symonette = UBP politician and first Premier
 * Lynden Pindling (PLP) won in 1967 and it was now called PM rather than premier. He is considered the founding father
 * The House of Lords gave independence on 22 June 1973 - Prince Charles delivered the official docs to PM Pindling and it was official on 10 July
 * Pindling remained popular despite corruption allegations, drug cartel links and financial malfeasance
 * The economy started to boom and many immigrants from Haiti arrived
 * Pindling was replaced by Hubert Ingraham in 1992
 * In 2019, Hurricane Dorian did huge damage to north Bahamas ($7b USD+ damages, 50+ deaths)
 * Nassau is the capital but Andros Island is the largest
 * January 1977 was the only time the Bahamas saw snow
 * The Bahamas is part of the Lucayan Archipelago
 * Their strongest relationships are with the UK and USA
 * The Bahamian flag was adopted in 1973 - the blue represents the sea, the yellow the sun and the black triangle is for social / economic development
 * The yellow elder is the national flower
 * The Bahamas is one of the richest countries in the Americas alongside US and Canada. Tourism generates ~50% of their GDP and around half of the people work in tourism
 * New Providence is the most populous island (> 70%)
 * The white population are called 'conch' (or 'Conchy Joe' as an insult). That's possibly because shellfish was a prominent part of their diet
 * Conch is actually the national dish
 * People are mostly Protestant and speak English or the local creole ('Bahamianese'). Creole refers to the less common French based language that came from the Haitian immigrants
 * The use of folk magic (obeah) is illegal but still practised by some
 * Junkanoo = Traditional street parade of music and art held in Nassau every BD and NYD
 * The national sport is cricket and has been played there since 1846 (they aren't part of WICB though)
 * Recently, this has declined and more American sports are increasingly popular
 * Mychal Thompson of the LA Lakers is Bahamian. His sons are NBA players Klay Thompson and Mychel Thompson and MLB player Trayce Thompson
 * They are very good at track and field. Pauline Davis-Thompson took the 200m gold in 2000 after Marion Jones was DQ'd

SU 17/05/20
 * Bahrain is from the Arabic for '2 seas' - i.e. the two seas either side of the islan. This word also appears 5 times in the Quran
 * Known to the Greeks as Tylos, Bahrain was the centre of pearl trading
 * ATG wanter Greek colonists to settle on the island and it became a site of Greek athletic contests. Some believe the Phoenicians originated from Bahrain
 * Bahrain also used to be called Awal - based on the name of an ox deity that used to be worshiped
 * It was one of the first countries to accept Islam following the Al Kudr Invasion in 624
 * In 1521, Muqrin ibn Zamil was defeated by the Portuguese Empire who ruled Bahrain for 80 years. They were kicked out by Abbas I of Persia in 1602 and Shia Islam started to spread
 * The sunni Al Bin Ali tribe became dominant and controlled Bahrain, Qatar, Kuwait and some of Saudi Arabia. They used the Al-Sulami flag until the 1960s which would eventually influence the Bahraini flag
 * In 1802, Bahrain was governed by a 12 year old
 * Following the Qatari–Bahraini War in 1868, the British signed an agreement saying no foreign relationships could be entered without British consent. In return, Britain would defend Bahrain from any sea attacks
 * Before petrol development, the island was largely devoted to pearl fisheries
 * Britain established dominance over the territory in 1892. The locals revolted and some protestors were killed by the Brits
 * In 1911, locals demanded restrictions on British influence but were arrested. Charles Belgrave operated as adviser to the ruler until 1957
 * In 1927, Reza Shah of Iran demanded sovereignty over Bahrain. This resulted in Belgrace pushing conflicts between local Shia and Sunnis to limit Iranian influence
 * Relations with Iran can become tense in modern times due to this history
 * In 1931, the Bahrain Petroleum Company (BAPCO) discovered oil and began production leading to rapid modernisation
 * Bahrain joined WW2 in 1939 and after this, anti-British sentiment grew and locals took their frustrations out on Bahrain's Jewish community
 * In 1965, a month-long uprising broke out after hundreds of local BAPCO workers were laid off
 * Bahrain gained independence on 15 Aug 1971
 * Shortly after Iran's Islamic revolution in 1979, Bahraini Shias attempted (and failed) a coup to install Hadi al-Modarresi as supreme leader
 * There were uprisings between 1994 - 2000 and Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa became the emir in 1999 (now king and son of Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa)
 * Bahrain is a constitutional monarchy
 * In 2002, Bahrain became known as the 'Kingdom of Bahrain'
 * Shia (possibly armed by Iran) were inspired by the Arab Spring and started protests against the Sunni rulers in 2011. Several people died
 * Mountain of Smoke (Jabal ad Dukhan) = Highest point
 * ~92% of Bahrain is desert and dust-storms due to low-level winds directed via the Zagros Mountains are common in June and July
 * The Arabian oryx is the national animal and they have over 300 bird species and the bulbul is the national bird
 * Khalifa bin Salman Al Khalifa has been PM since 1971 (the current longest serving PM)
 * Around half of the government is from the House of Khalifa
 * Isa Qassim = Bahrain's leading Shia cleric / politician. He leads Al Wefaq
 * Shias are often discriminated against in employment, education and justice
 * They have a small military called the BDF (Bahrain Defence Force) with 13k people. They are mainly equipped by the US
 * HMS Jufair = British Royal Navy base in Mina Salman
 * Women have been allowed to vote since 2002. Lateefa Al Gaood became the first female MP in 2006
 * Bahrain is split into 4 governorates - Capital Governorate, Bahrain, Muharraq Governorate, Northern Governorate and Southern Governorate
 * The economy is mainly driven by petroleum exports
 * Bahrain relies on imports of food. It gets most meat imports from Australia and also imports 75% of its fruit
 * Tourism is growing and many people visit to watch the Bahrain Grand Prix. The Tree of Life (grows without water) is also often visited
 * It is a popular place to scuba dive and has an underwater theme park with a sunken Boeing 747
 * Bahrain International Airport (BIA) is located on the island of Muharraq. Gulf Air is the national carrier
 * Most of the population are Middle Eastern, followed by Indian nationals
 * The majority are Shia (Azerbaijan, Iraq and Iran are the only other countries with Shia majority). However, most elites / royals / powerful people are Sunni
 * Around 10% are Christians and another 10% are other (mostly hindus)
 * Bahrani Arabic is the official language but English is widely used - road signs display both
 * There have been schools set up to cater to foreigners' children - e.g. the Pakistan Urdu School
 * They've had universal health care since 1960. Life expectancy is around 75yo
 * Obesity is a big problem - 30% of males and 40% of females. They have the 5th most instances of diabetes in the world
 * Although hijab and the thobe are traditional, many people stay in Western clothing
 * Homosexuality was legalized in 1976
 * Khaliji and sawt are popular forms of music
 * In 2006, Bahrain changed its weekend from Thurs/Fri to Fri/Sat to better align with others
 * They are interested in MMA and have hosted tournaments. Football is the most popular sport overall
 * Allowing the 2012 Bahrain Grand Prix to take place (after 2011 was cancelled) was considered controversial by many given the ongoing Bahraini uprising of 2011


 * Bangladesh means 'land of the Bengal'. The meaning of Bengal is uncertain but it might refer to Bonga (sun God)
 * It is the most densely-populated large country in the world
 * Stone Age tools found in Bangladesh indicate human habitation for over 20,000 years,
 * The Gangaridai (people who apparently made ATG withdraw from the Indian subcontinent due to their war elephant force) were also said to live around Bangladesh
 * The Islam conquest began in 1204 by Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji and the region was ruled by the Delhi Sultanate for a century
 * Subsequently, the independent Bengal Sultanate was established by 1352 and the region became an Islamic superpower and major trading nation, working with Europeans
 * By the 17th century, the Mughal Empire under Emperor Akbar controlled Bengal. Dhaka became their major fort city and the capital of Bengal Subah for 75 years
 * The empire became a major global exporter and notable centre of muslin, cotton textiles, silk and shipbuilding
 * During the 18th century, the Nawabs of Bengal became the rulers producing textiles, agricultural produce and saltpetre
 * The Bengalis were apparently attracted to Islam by its egalitarian social order (rather than the Hundu caste system)
 * Notable Bengali Muslim poets of the medieval period included Daulat Qazi and Alaol
 * The Battle of Plassey (1757) saw the British East India Company (under Robert Clive) defeat the Nawabs of Bengal and their French allies. It was the first part of the Indian subcontinent conquered
 * The Bengal Presidency was formed and administered until 1858
 * The plunder of their resources helped launch the Industrial Revolution in Britain but contributed to the Great Bengal famine of 1770 which killed 10m +
 * Several tried to rise up through the Indian Rebellion of 1857 but this failed as the rebellions were all very localised (so the British could easily tackle on small group at a time)
 * The British created several schools and colleges and made use of local production of jute and tea
 * They had the highest GDP in British India and one of the first railways in Asia (from 1862)
 * In 1905, the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam was created but this created division between Hindus and Muslims
 * A. K. Fazlul Huq (1873 - 1962) = First PM of Bengal (1937-43) of the Krishak Sramik Party
 * He was succeeded by Khawaja Nazimuddin (later 2nd PM of Pak) who oversaw the effects of the Burma Campaign and the Bengal famine of 1943 which killed up to 3m
 * Pakistan was created 14 Aug 1947 and practised extensive economic discrimination against East Pakistan
 * Agartala Conspiracy Case = 1968 case and arrest against Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (Father of the nation for Bangladesh and first president and later PM) finding that they had gone to India to seek support of BD's independence (thus causing instability in Pakistan)
 * Rahman was father of Sheikh Hasina and Sheikh Rehana
 * In 1971, civil disobedience erupted in E. Pak and Yahya Khan launched a military assault (Operation Searchlight), leading to the Bangladesh Liberation War and creation of the Mukti Bahini
 * 1971 Bangladesh genocide = Mass killings and rape by the Pak military. The Concert for Bangladesh was held at MSG, NYC and organised by George Harrison and Ravi Shankar
 * Pak surrendered 16 Dec 1971 and Rahman was released in 1972
 * Rahman was assassinated during a 15 Aug 1975 coup and martial law was declared
 * Khondaker Mostaq Ahmad was likely involved in the killing and took presidency after
 * Khaleda Zia became BD's first female PM in 1991. Sheikh Hasina won in 1996. This has been dubbed the 'Battle of the Begums'
 * In the 2010s, BD's economic growth improved but human right abuses increased under Hasina's Awami League - see Forced disappearance in Bangladesh
 * Either Keokradong or Saka Haphong is the highest point
 * BD is divided into 8 administrative areas - Barisal, Chittagong, Dhaka, Khulna, Mymensingh, Rajshahi, Rangpur and Sylhet
 * It is estimated that a 3ft rise in sea levels will displace more than 30m (20%) people by 2050
 * The water is often contaminated with arsenic because of the high amounts of it in the soil
 * Rhinos used to live in BD but went extinct
 * From 1990 - 2014, Bangladesh's two parties (Awami League and Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) alternated in power
 * Myanmar was one of the first countries to recognise BD but relations have become strained after the Rohingya genocide and many of these refugees illegally entering BD
 * India and China have good relationships with BD
 * Rapid Action Battalion (RAB) = BD security forces, often said to commit human rights abuses (killings, torture, disappearances etc.) AKA the death squad
 * Agriculture drives the economy and employs close to half the people
 * The currency is the Bangladeshi taka
 * Muhammad Yunus founded Grameen Bank and the concepts of microcredit and microfinance
 * Cox's Bazar = City and fishing port in SE BD
 * BD are working with Russia to build the Ruppur Nuclear Power Plant
 * Urdu was an official language until 1971 but few people now speak it
 * Islam is the state religion but religion-based politics are banned. It is S Asia's first constitutionally-secular country
 * Healthcare is poor (too many under-qualified 'village' doctors) and BD has the most malnourished children in the world
 * Zainul Abedin (1914 - 1976) = Painter who's art was based on the great famines
 * Chobi Mela International Photography Festival = Largest photo festival in Asia
 * The Charyapadas are the earliest example of Bengali poetry
 * BD has a history of feminism with Begum Rokeya and Faizunnessa Chowdhurani who promoted education and emanciation from purdah
 * Nakshi kantha (embroidered quilt) = Centuries-old Bengali art tradition
 * Hilsa (AKA Ilish) fish is the national dish. Their foods also include lots of white rice and vegetables
 * Pahela Baishakh = Bengali New Year (for all religions)
 * Kabaddi is the national sport but cricket and football are most popular
 * Niaz Murshed was the first S. Asian chess player to become a grand master (in 87)

TH 21/05/20
 * Barbados means 'bearded' in Spanish - possibly referring to the bearded fig-tree or the bearded Caribs who live there
 * It was originally called Ichirouganaim ('red land with white teeth')
 * The locals call their homeland 'Bim' or 'Bimshire' (from the Igbo term for 'my home' (bé mụ́)
 * In pre-colonial times, the main groups on the island were S. American - the Arawaks and the Kalinago
 * The Portuguese were probably the first Europeans to come to the island but the English arrived in 1625 and settled there shortly after
 * The ethnic composition of Barbados started changing after the 1640 introduction of sugar cane from Dutch Brazil and the introduction of several African slaves
 * Barbados Slave Code = Code that laid out rules and punishments for slaves. It was lated used as a template for US slavery
 * Bussa's rebellion of 1816 = Largest Barbadian slave revolt - the British defeated them
 * They were badly hit by the Great Hurricane of 1780 and had > 4k deaths
 * Grantley Herbert Adams (1898 - 1971) = Founder of Barbados Labour Party (BLP) and first Premier of Barbados
 * When Barbados became independent (30/11/1966), Errol Barrow became the first PM
 * Barrow was defeated by Tom Adams in 1976. Barrow would become PM again in 1986 but died a year later in office
 * In 2018, Mia Mottley (LSE grad) became their first female PM
 * Barbados is one of the most densely populated islands and 1/3 of the population live in Bridgetown
 * Barbados is only 21mi across its widest point
 * The last major hurricane was in 1955 (Hurricane Janet)
 * Barbados is home to four nesting turtles: green turtles, loggerhead sea turtles, hawksbill turtles and leatherback turtles
 * English is the official language but most use Bajan Creole
 * QE2 is the Queen of Barbados and they function as a 2-party system (BLP Vs. DLP)
 * Barbados is divided into 11 parishes. Only 2 (St. George and St. Thomas) are in the middle of the country and have no coastlines
 * Sugarcane cultivation, tourism and manufacturing are major economic drivers and Barbados is quite well-developed
 * They have universal healthcare and an above average health workers to population ratio
 * Life expectancy is ~80yo
 * Crop Over = Traditional harvest festival (from 1687) that takes place in summer. The male and female who harvested the most sugarcane are crowned as King and Queen of the crop
 * Cou-cou & flying fish with spicy gravy is the national dish
 * Musicians include Rihanna, Mark Morrison and Grandmaster Flash
 * Cricketers include Sir Garfield Sobers, Gordon Greenidge and Malcolm Marshall
 * Polo is very popular amongst the rich elite and basketball is becoming more popular amongst others
 * Taxis in Barbados are called ZRs ('Zed-Rs')
 * Grantley Adams International Airport = The only airport on the island. It was originally called Seawell Airport

FR 23/05/20
 * Belarus means 'white Russia'
 * Early cultures included the Bandkeramik and Dnieper-Donets culture
 * Baltic peoples settles in Belarus in the 3rd century and Slavic tribes later took over
 * In 1796, Catherine II of Russia acquired a lot of Belarusian land for Russia and held it until WW1
 * Under Nicholas I of Russia and Alexander III of Russia the national cultures were repressed and Russification replaced Polonization
 * As such, the Belarusian language was prohibited in public schools and Belarusian publications were limited. There was also a drive to move towards Orthodox Christianity over Catholicism
 * Belarus first declared independence through the Belarusian People's Republic in 1918 during the negotiations of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk but the Polish-Soviet War ignited shortly after and they shared Belarus
 * In 1919, a part of Russian-ruled Belarus became known as Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (Byelorussia). During WW2, it would remain in Nazi hands until 1944
 * They suffered many losses - Germany destroyed 209 / 290 cities, 85% of their industry and over 1m buildings. There were over 1m deaths as Generalplan Ost called for the Genocide of most locals to make way for Germans.
 * The population didn't get back to previous levels until the 1970s
 * Under Stalin and Khrushchev, Sovietization was promoted
 * Mass graves were discovered in 1988 that suggested Soviets were actually trying to eras Belarusians. This accelerated calls for independence
 * They became independent on 27 July 1990 and became known as the Republic of Belarus a year later
 * A constitution was adopted in 1994 and Alexander Lukashenko became president in the 94 elections. He was re-elected in 2001, 2006, 2010 and 2015
 * Since 2014, he has pushed for Belarusian identity over Russian identity and gave a speech in the language for the first time, saying "We are not Russian—we are Belarusians"
 * However, in front of Putin he has said that he could easily have Belarus and Russia join
 * Dzyarzhynskaya Hara (345m) = Highest point (located west of Minsk)
 * World heritage sites include Mir Castle Complex and Nesvizh Castle
 * About 70% of the radiation from the 1986 Chernobyl disaster entered Belarus
 * Bribes are common in the judicial system and the gov are often criticised for human rights violations
 * Relations with Russia are generally good. Relations with the US are ok but slightly strained due to US support of anti-Lukashenko NGOs
 * Belarus is split into 6 regions: Brest, Gomel, Grodno, Mogilev, Minsk and Vitebsk
 * It's the only European country still using capital punishment (Execution by shooting - executioner shoots the blindfolded kneeling convict in the back of the head)
 * Manufacturing drives the economy
 * The currency is the Belarusian ruble
 * The population is decreasing (like several other eastern European countries)
 * Life expectancy is ~72yo
 * Minsk (2m) is the largest city, followed by Homyel (550k)
 * Russian and Belarusian are the 2 official language
 * There is a ~50% split between Eastern Orthodoxy and no religion. Others are Catholics and some Muslims (Lipka Tatars)
 * Jews declined after Nazi rule
 * The flag pattern was created by Matrona Markevich in 1917. Her husban was arrested for anti-Soviet propaganda in 1937 and the family were dekulakized
 * Kirill of Turov (1130 - 1182) = One of the first theologians of Kievan Rus'
 * Many prominent Belarusian intellectuals were killed under Stalin in the 1930s
 * In the 1960s, Vasil Bykaŭ became famous for his novels about WW2
 * Ales Adamovich (1927 - 1994) = Writer of Come and See
 * Marc Chagall was born in Belarus and was of Belarusian Jewish origin
 * The national dish is Draniki (potato pancakes)
 * Football is the most popular sport, followed by hockey
 * Tennis player Victoria Azarenka became the first Belarusian to win a Grand Slam singles (Australian Open 2012). She also won gold in mixed doubles olympics the same year with Max Mirnyi
 * Aryna Sabalenka was born in Minsk
 * Former UFC Heavyweight Champion Andrei Arlovski is from Belarus

SA 23/05/20
 * Belgium came from Gallia Belgica; an Ancient Roman province
 * The country gained independence through the 1830 Belgian Revolution
 * Leopold I of Belgium = First monarch (ruling 1831 - 1865)
 * Étienne Constantin de Gerlache = First PM (1831, for 11 days)
 * French was originally the single official language and used by the upper classes. Dutch became recognized in the 1900s. German is the third official language
 * The Berlin Conference (1885) gave King Leopold II private possession of the Congo Free State. He brutally used them for ivory and rubber production, possibly halving the population
 * Congo would gain independence in 1960
 * As part of the Schlieffen Plan, there was a German invasion of Belgium in 1914. The brutal rule of the Germans became known as the Rape of Belgium
 * Germany would invade again in 1940 in the Battle of Belgium. The Belgian army surrendered after a couple of weeks and Germans ruled again
 * They were liberated by the Allies in 1945 and King Leopold III] abdicated in 1951 as many locals felt he was working with Germany (The [[Royal Question). He was replaced by his son, Baudouin of Belgium
 * Signal de Botrange = Highest point (694m)
 * Belgium is one of Europe's most efficient recylers
 * The country is divided into 3 regions: Flemish Region, Walloon Region and Brussels Capital Region
 * Brussels is a bilingual area. The Flemish Regions (North) speak Dutch and the Walloon Region (South) speak French
 * Belgium has one of the highest voter turnout rates (they have had compulsory voting since 1894)
 * Dioxin affair = 1999 food crisis that was apparently covered up but the government
 * Belgium is the only country that does not have age restrictions on euthanasia
 * The PM from 1999 - 2007 was Guy Verhofstadt but the country face political crisis in 2007 and was close to possible partition of Belgium
 * Yves Leterme became PM and then Elio Di Rupo became their 50th (first francophone since 1979, first openly gay PM of Belgium and their first of non-Belgian descent [Italian])
 * The EU and NATO are both HQ'd in Brussels. Belgium joined these in 1948
 * Belgium was the first European country to undergo the Industrial Revolution as mining / steelmaking flourished in Wallonia
 * After WW2, there was a rapid expansion in petroleum industry but oil crises in the 1970s caused a recession
 * Flanders is now much richer (and has twice as many people) than Wallonia. As such, pro-independence movements have emerged in Flanders - e.g. the New Flemish Alliance (N-VA)
 * The currency was the Belgian franc (until the Euro from 2002-)
 * Belgium has some of Europe's most congested traffic
 * >80% of national air traffic is handled by Brussels Airport
 * Famous early scientists included Gerardus Mercator (geographer / cartographer who made the Mercator 1569 world map) and Andreas Vesalius (founder of human anatomy)
 * Georges Lemaître (1894 - 1966) = Belgian Catholic prise, mathematician and astronomer who proposed the 'Big Bang Theory' in 1927
 * Belgium has one of the oldest populations - the avg age is ~42yo
 * The largest group of immigrants and their descendants in Belgium are Moroccans
 * The largest cities are Antwerp (F, 550k), Ghent (F, 260k), Charleroi and Liège (W, 200k)
 * Belgium is largely secular with 37% believing in God. Catholicism is the largest religion
 * Health is very good with avg age ~80yo. Insurance is compulsory but the system is a mix of public and private (they are also taxed)
 * Belgium has one of the highest suicide rates in the developed world (exceeded only by Lithuania, South Korea, and Latvia) - even when including assisted suicide
 * Famous painters include Jan van Eyck and Pieter Breugel the Elder and, later, Peter Paul Rubens and Anthony van Dyck
 * In 1883, the artist group Les XX (including James Ensor was founded
 * Other famous artists include René Magritte
 * Adolphe Sax (1814 - 1894) invented the saxophone in 1846
 * Recent musicians include Stromae and Hooverphonic
 * Hendrik Conscience (1812 - 1883) = Pioneer of Dutch-language literature in Flanders through The Lion of Flanders
 * Georges Simenon created Jules Maigret
 * Hercule Poirot is also from Spa, Belgium
 * Maurice Maeterlinck (1862 - 1949) = Belgian playwright, poet and essayist who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1911
 * Hergé created Tintin in 1946 and Peyo create The Smurfs in 1958 (featured in Johan and Peewit)
 * The national dishes are steak-frites and moules-frites
 * Football is the most popular sport but Belgians hold the most Tour de France victories of any country except France
 * Eddy Merckx AKA The Cannibal is considered on of the greatest cyclists ever
 * Kim Clijsters and Justine Henin were both ranked no. 1 female tennis player

SA 30/05/20
 * Belize is likely from the Mayan 'bel Itza' ('road to Itza) or 'belix' meaning 'muddy-watered'
 * The Maya civilization spread across Belize around 1500 BC and flourished there until AD 900
 * Spanish conquistadors explored but did not settle. The British settled there in 1716 and used black slaves to produce clothing dyes
 * Belize was often a main target attacked by the Spanish empire when they fought GB - e.g. Battle of St. George's Caye
 * The British Empire abolished slavery in 1833 but the workers still lived in poor conditions with few rights
 * The 1930s Great Depression and the 1931 British Honduras hurricane made conditions even worse
 * Belize got independence on 21/09 1981. Guatemala did not recognise this and felt they owned Belize
 * Guatemala still claim the territory and the UK has to sometimes mediate - see Belizean–Guatemalan territorial dispute
 * George Cadle Price (1919 - 2011) = First PM of Belize (89 - 93). Represents the centre-left PUP
 * Manuel Esquivel = Main challenger to Price who became PM 2 times. Represents the centre-right UDP
 * 2005 Belize unrest = Protests in the capital, Belmopan, against significant tax increases
 * The Belize Defence Force has a small army, navy and AF
 * The 6 districts of Belize are: Belize District, Cayo District, Orange Walk District, Corozal District, Stann Creek District and Toledo District
 * Belize still fails to recognize indigenous populations and their rights
 * Belize is the only Central American country with no Pacific coastline
 * The highest point is Doyle's Delight (1,124m). It is named after [[Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's quote "there must be something wild and wonderful in a country such as this, and we're the men to find it out!" (from The Lost World (1912))
 * Belize is often used by drug smugglers as a major transit / gateway to neighbouring Mexico
 * The position between N and S America allow for a lot of biodiversity. The Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary was founded in 1990 and is one of the world's leading sites of jaguar preservation
 * Belize has the largest cave system in Central America
 * The Belize Barrier Reef is a top tourist spot for scuba divers. Darwin called it the "most remarkable reef in the West Indies"
 * The Great Blue Hole is a giant marine sinkhole
 * In 2010, Belize became the first country to ban bottom trawling
 * Hurricanes have consistently devastated Belize and multiple devastation to Belize City (especially after Hurricane Hattie in 1961) meant the capital was moved to the inland planned city of Belmopan in 1970
 * Tourism, agriculture and oil drive the economy
 * They are looking to improve tax collection and also have 4 banks, including Belize Bank. Belize is considered as a major money laundering country by the US
 * The main mode of transport is the bus
 * Philip S. W. Goldson International Airport = Airport in Belize City
 * The birth rate is close to 4 children per woman
 * Maya now make up only ~10%, as most have been wiped out over the years (through warring visitors or the diseases they brought). Mestizos and Belizean Creole people are most prevalent (> 75%)
 * There are also Garinagu people (Arawak / Carib descent) and German-speaking Mennonites. Said Musa (PM from 98 - 08) descended from Palestine
 * Belize is the only country in Central America with English as the official language
 * When they were a British colony, Spanish was banned in schools but is now taught as a second language. Spanglish (Kitchen Spanish) is also common
 * San Ignacio (20k) is the second largest city, after Belize City (60k)
 * Catholics used to be the majority but Protestants have been growing recently and are now close to even
 * The literacy rate is one of the lowest in the West (~80%)
 * There are relatively high crime rates, often due to gangs and drug / person trafficking. The murder rate is one of the highest in the world
 * Belize retains much folklore from its Mayan roots, such as the legend of Lang Bobi Suzi - a female monster who whips naught children with her giant breasts
 * Public holidays include Garifuna Settlement Day and Baron Bliss Day (AKA Heroes & Benefactors' Day)
 * Breakfast is often tortillas and fry jacks
 * Midday meals are the main meal and are referred to as 'dinner'
 * The national dish is called 1, 2, 3 and consists of Rice and Beans, Stewed Chicken and Potato Salad
 * Punta is a popular Afro-Caribbean music / dance from the region
 * Brukdown, associated with Wilfred Peters, is their version of calypso music, often also featuring an accordion
 * The main sports are football, basketball, volleyball and cycling
 * Cross Country Cycling Classic = One day amateur cycling race held in Belize every year during Easter. It originated when villagers used to cycle long distances to attend weekly games of cricket
 * La Ruta Maya = 4 day canoe marathon held in Belize right around Baron Bliss Day - probably their biggest sporting event
 * Simone Biles is a dual citizen of the US and Belize (she is of Belizean descent)


 * Benin was formerly known as Dahomey (until 1975). It was named after the Bight of Benin
 * Benin comes from a Portuguese corruption of the city of Ubinu (meaning "house of vexation")
 * Early Benin was ruled by Yoruba through the Oyo Empire
 * In the 1600s and 1700s the Kingdom of Dahomey was established, mostly of Fon people
 * The Kingdom was known for appointing young boy soldiers and also elite female soldiers (Dahomey Amazons). This focus on military gave Dahomey the nickname 'black Sparta' by Europeans
 * Annual Customs of Dahomey = Yearly celebration held in Abomey where gifts were distributed, parades were held and humans were sacrificed
 * The Slave Coast of West Africa began to flourish under the leaders of Dahomey in partnership with Portuguese merchants
 * The capital Porto-Novo is Portuguese for 'New Port' - it was originally a main port for the slave trade
 * France too over in 1892 and formed French Dahomey shortly after
 * Independence was gained 01/08 1960 under Hubert Maga
 * For the next decade, there were several coups and regime changes. In 1972, Mathieu Kérékou overthrew the ruling triumvirate to become president and make the country Marxist (the country was renamed in 1975 as the People's Republic of Benin)
 * Kérékou put most businesses under state control and foreign investment dried up. His reshuffle of education - forcing people to believe 'poverty is not a fatality' - caused a mass exodus of teachers
 * He became a Muslim in 1980, calling himself Ahmed. He went back as a born-again Christian later
 * Riots in 1989 forced him to renounce Marxism and the country was renamed as the Republic of Benin in 1990
 * Benin is divided into 12 départements - the largest are Atlantique Department, Borgou Department and Ouémé Department (1m+)
 * The life expectancy is 62yo
 * Most people live in the south of the country - most are Fon people and Aja people. Yoruba also make up ~12% and there are some migrants from India and Lebanon
 * Cotonou is the largest city (700k). Porto-Novo, Parakou and Godomey are next (250k)
 * Christianity (50%) and Islam (25%) are the largest religions. Vodun is ~10%
 * West African Vodun = Religion of the Fon. They believe the (female) creator embodies the moon (Mawu) and sun (Lisa) - these are often depicted as her twin children
 * The highest point is Mont Sokbaro (658m)
 * Benin is dotted with huge baobab trees (Adansonia digitata) and also has a Panthera leo leo (West African lion) population
 * Harmattan = A dry wind from the Sahara that blows Dec - Mar and covers the country in a veil of fine dust
 * Benin's currency is the CFA franc: petroleum, agriculture and cotton production drive the economy
 * Cadjehoun Airport = Benin's only international airport (located in Cotonou)
 * The Trans–West African Coastal Highway links to Nigeria, Togo, Ghana and Ivory Coast
 * The literacy rate (38%) is amongst the lowest in the world
 * The HIV/AIDS rate in adults is between 1% and 2%. Malaria is a leading cause of child mortality
 * The infant mortality rate was one of the highest in the world and <30% of the population had access to health care. This was changed through the Bamako Initiative of 1987
 * Angélique Kidjo and Djimon Hounsou were born in Cotonou
 * Many Beninese people in the South have names indicating the day of the week on which they were born (due to the influence of the Akan people)
 * Mon (Kwadwo), Tue (Kwabena), Wed (Kwaku), Thu (Kwaw), Fri (Kofi), Sat (Kwame), Sun (Kwesi)
 * In S. Benin cuisine, the most common ingredient is corn, fish and chicken. Yams are a popular staple food as meat is usually quite expensive
 * Kuli-kuli (W African snack made from peanuts) is the national dish
 * Football and baseball are the most popular sports

MO 31/05/20
 * Bhutan is likely to come from the Sanskrit Bhoṭa-anta ('end of Tibet'). The official name is Druk Yul ('country of the dragon people)
 * Bhutan has never been colonized
 * Humans have lived there since 2000 BC and the aboriginals were known as the Monpa people
 * Buddhism was first introduced to Bhutan in the 7th century AD and an early temple was constructed in Bumthang
 * The ancient / former capital was Punakha (until 1955)
 * Dzong architecture = Type of fortress found in Bhutan and Tibet - these were built to defend against Tibet in the 17th century
 * Tsa Yig = Bhutan's code of law enforced by founder Ngawang Namgyal
 * When Namgyal died in 1651, his passing was kept secret for 54 years and internal conflict then began to emerge
 * The Duar War (1864 - 65) = War between Bhutan and British India and BI acquired the dooars (meaning 'doors' in Bengali) which are alluvial floodplains
 * In 1907, Ugyen Wangchuck was chosen as the first King (Druk Gyalpo)
 * They used to have an absolute monarchy but now have a constitutional monarchy - i.e. the monarch no longer has total control
 * In 1999, the government lifted a ban on TV and the Internet
 * A new constitution was created in 2005 and, in 2008, Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck became king
 * The highest point is Gangkhar Puensum (7,570m) and is believed to be the world's highest unclimbed mountain
 * Bhutan has lots of monkeys, including the rare golden langur. They also have big cats like the bengal tiger and clouded leopard
 * Takin = Large goat species and national animal
 * Bhutan are very mindful of environmental issues
 * Electric cars are constantly promoted and make up >10% of all cars
 * The forest cover >70% of the country acts as a carbon sink and collects 2.2 million tons of CO2 per year
 * Women are culturally kept to the household but this has changed in recent times with more women in power
 * Bhutan feared Chinese expansion and have always stayed close to India as a result. Indian and Bhutanese citizens can travel without visas
 * In 2005, Chinese soldiers entered and started building roads and bridges. The Bhutanese suspected this was to further Chinese claims across the partially disputed border
 * Bhutan has strict anti-gay laws but many are against these and oppose them
 * Many Lhotshampa (ethnic Nepalese of Bhutan) were expelled from the country in the 1990s. Nepal does not give them citizenship so many become stateless
 * Bhutan is divided into 20 districts including Bumthang District, Chukha District, Gasa District, Haa District, Paro District and Sarpang District
 * The economy is based on agriculture, forestry, tourism and selling hydroelectric power to India. The commissioning of the Tala Hydroelectric Power Station has helped Bhutan have one of the world's fastest growing economies
 * The currency is the ngultrum
 * There are no railways but India is assisting with this
 * Bhutan wants to be the first country with 100% organic farming. The most famous export is Bhutanese red rice
 * Paro Airport is their only international airport and the national carrier is Druk Air
 * Avg age is 25yo and literacy rate is 60%
 * Life expectancy is ~70yo
 * The population is mainly made up of Western (Ngalops) and Eastern (Sharchops) Bhutanese. The King and political elite are usually Ngalops, but there are more Sharchops
 * The largest cities are Thimphu (115k), Phuntsholing (30k) and Paro (12k)
 * Most (3/4) follow Vajrayana Buddhism (also the state religion). ~20% are hindus
 * Dzongkha (Bhutanese) is the national language and uses a script called Chhokey
 * The Royal University of Bhutan is one of 2 universities. Teachers from Kerala often come to help teach schools, especially in remote villages
 * Because of its largely unspoiled natural environment and cultural heritage, Bhutan has been referred to as 'The Last Shangri-La'
 * Bhutan is expensive for tourists. People must pay US$250 a day to a tour operator
 * They're the first country to ban smoking - violators are fined a month's salary in Bhutan
 * They introduced the concept of Gross National Happiness; a philosophy that guides the government
 * The national dress for men is the gho and, for women, the kira
 * Law requires all gov. employees to wear national dress at work. All citizens must wear them at schools and other gov offices
 * Their architecture makes heavy use of rammed earth and wattle and daub construction methods
 * Masked dances and dance dramas are common - e.g. depicting heroes and demons
 * Zhungdra and boedra are the main types of traditional folk music. Rigsar is the most popular modern music
 * In Bhutanese families, inheritance usually passes matrilineally (through females). A man is expected to make his own way
 * Red rice, buckwheat and maize with various meats are main ingredients. The national dish is Ema datshi (chilli and cheese)
 * Butter tea is a popular beverage
 * Bhutan's national sport is archery. It is often played socially between villages and with lots of food and dancing. It is common to taunt the opponent and make fun of their skills to put them off
 * Darts is also very popular - known as khuru
 * In 2002, Bhutan's football team faced Montserrat in Thimphu and this was billed as The Other Final (both were the lowest ranked teams). Bhutan won 4 - 0
 * Cricket is gaining popularity through India


 * Bolivia is named after Simón Bolívar - a Venezuelan leader in the Spanish American wars of independence
 * The country's official name was changed from Republic of Bolivar to the Plurinational State of Bolivia in 2009. This was to highlight their multi-ethnic nature
 * The Aymara people were preceded by other early settlers
 * Between 1438 - 1527, the Inca Empire expanded from its capital (Cuzco, Peru) and controlled major parts of Bolivia
 * The Spanish conquest of the Inca was completed by 1533 and silver from Bolivia became an important revenue source for the Spanish
 * The struggle for independence started in 1809 Sucre with the Chuquisaca Revolution and then the La Paz revolution
 * Both revolutions were short-lived and defeated by the Spanish shortly after. Bolivia was captured / recaptured many times
 * Bolivia was finally freed of Royalist dominion by the military campaign of Marshal Antonio José de Sucre
 * The Republic was proclaimed on 6 Aug 1825 (Independence Day)
 * In 1836, they worked with Peru to form the Peru-Bolivian Confederation. Chile declared war the same year and Argentina did a year later
 * Chile invaded again (successfully) during the Battle of Yungay and the confederation ended
 * Since independence, Bolivia has lost over half of its territory to neighbouring countries - they lost the basin of the Madre de Dios River and parts of the Amazon they owned. They also lost the state of Acre (major source of rubber) in the Acre War
 * It is rumoured that this was traded by President Mariano Melgarejo for a beautiful white horse
 * A boom in silver price in the late 19th century helped bring stability to Bolivia. Eventually tin became their most important source of wealth
 * Bolivia defeated Paraguay in the Chaco War (1932 - 35) and lost a large part of the Gran Chaco (semiarid land of the Rio de la Plata basin)
 * Major changes to land-reform, education and the nationalisation of tin mines came under President Víctor Paz Estenssoro (MNR)
 * The military dictatorship of the 1960s was trained by the CIA and Che Guevara was killed in Bolivia by CIA officers and the Bolivian army in 1967
 * Che was killed by the Cuban-American CIA officer Félix Rodríguez, who told "the soldier who pulled the trigger to aim carefully, to remain consistent with the Bolivian government's story that Che had been killed in action during a clash with the Bolivian army"
 * In 1971, President Juan José Torres was forced out by the military and Hugo Banzer Suárez became president
 * Torres was assassinated in Buenos Aires in 1976 as part of the US-backed Operation Condor
 * In 1980, General Luis García Meza Tejada carried out a ruthless and violent coup d'état that did not have popular support
 * He pacified the people, promising to stay for one year then gave a staged announcement, saying "Bueno, me quedo", or, "All right; I'll stay!
 * In 1982, Hernán Siles Zuazo became president for the second time
 * Major economic and social reforms came after Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada (AKA Goni) was elected in 1993
 * In 1997, Banzer became president again and corruption rose
 * Cochabamba Water War = 1999/2000 protests in response to the privatisation of the city's water supply (price hike)
 * Banzer resigned in 2001 after his cancer diagnosis and died a year later
 * In 2003, the Bolivian gas conflict broke out
 * In 2005, Evo Morales won the election and announced re-nationalization of hydrocarbon assets, making the gas conflict worse
 * He wrote a new constitution to give more power to the indigenous people (Morales is also indigenous)
 * The people of Sucre wanted to make their city the capital and started a conflict with 500 wounded and 3 killed. It became the 'official capital' in the constitution (and is the site of the Supreme Court) but the seat of government is La Paz
 * Because there was a new constitution, Morales got an 'extra' term he could run for. He had 3 successive terms as president after being re-elected twice. He narrowly lost the referendum asking for an extra term (a fourth) but got to run anyway.
 * He is Bolivia's longest serving President but resigned before a fourth term (people protested and he fled to Mexico)
 * Jeanine Áñez is serving as interim president. She is right wing (unlike the socialist Morales) and is the second female president of Bolivia, after Lidia Gueiler Tejada (cousin of Raquel Welch)
 * Bolivia is one of the most biodiverse countries due to the variety of terrain / climates
 * It is considered the place of origin for peppers and peanuts
 * The highest point is the stratovolcano Nevado Sajama (6,542m)
 * The country is vulnerable to climate change and many have moved around (environmental migrants)
 * Bolivia has claimed parts of maritime Chile to access the Pacific Ocean. In 1904, the Treaty of Peace and Friendship was signed and Chile built the Arica–La Paz railway in 1913. Although landlocked, Bolivia have a Navy
 * Bolivia has nine departments—Pando, La Paz, Beni, Oruro, Cochabamba, Santa Cruz, Potosí, Chuquisaca, Tarija
 * The economy has been hit by 1980's drop in tin price and the 2000 water price hike where many could no longer afford clean water. The Water supply and sanitation in Bolivia has improve since 1990 but remains a major issue
 * They have the second largest natural gas reserves in S. America (after Venezuela) which drives the economy
 * The currency is the Bolivian boliviano
 * Bolivia is estimated to have 50 - 70% of the world's lithium but would have to be mined from Salar de Uyuni (the world's largest salt flat and a major tourist destination)
 * Yungas Road = 60km cycle route in La Paz that has been called the most dangerous road in the world because of the steep drop and narrow track
 * El Alto International Airport (La Paz) = Highest international airport in the world. La Paz is also the highest capital in the world
 * Boliviana de Aviación (BoA) is the national carrier
 * Most of the population are mestizo and ~15% are white. There are also a small number of Mennonites in Bolivia
 * Most people speak Spanish but the indigenous languages Quechua and Aymara are also common
 * The largest city, by far, is Santa Cruz de la Sierra (1.5m). The next largest is El Alto (850k), then La Paz (800k)
 * Culture is influenced by Latin America and folk music includes the use of the tarka
 * The national dish is the Salteña (a baked empanada filled with meat)
 * Life expectancy is ~70yo and most have no healthcare or access to it
 * Football and Racquetball are popular sports

TU 02/06/20
 * Bosnia and Herzegovina is likely to be a hydronym from the Bosna River (meaning 'running water') + 'Herzog's Land' ('Duke's Land')
 * The country is split into two entities: Republika Srpska and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina
 * The Badanj Cave is home to some of the oldest cave paintings
 * The Illyrians brought bronze culture but this was replaced by iron in the 7th century BC
 * In the 4th century BC, the Celts invaded and brought the pottery wheel. They mixed with the Illyrian tribes
 * Conflict between the Illyrians and Romans started in 229BC. Romans started settling there after a very hard-won victory
 * By the 6th century, Justinian conquered the area for the Byzantine Empire
 * The Early Slavs raided in the 6th and 7th century
 * Following the death of their first king, Tvrtko I of Bosnia, in 1391, Bosnia started to decline and Ottoman Bosnia started in 1463 following a successful invasion
 * They started turning Christians muslim and improved theArchitecture of Bosnia and Herzegovina, including building the first library in Sarajevo, Emperor's Mosque and Stari Most (bridge over the river Neretva)
 * Nationalist movements emerged in the 19th century after Serbia had broken away from the Ottoman Empire. The Serbian nationalists would send propoganda claiming Bosnia as a Serbian province
 * There was a peasant uprising called the Herzegovina uprising (1875–1877), led by ethnic Serbs against the Ottomans
 * Austria–Hungary began to plan annexation of Bosnia but Serbs and ethnic Serbs did not agree, stalling the annexation until 1909
 * Gavrilo Princip was a Bosnian serb member of the Young Bosnia revolutionaries. He assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in Sarajevo in 1914 and triggered WW1
 * In retaliation, Austria-Hungary established a militia (Schutzkorps, mainly made of Muslims) to repress enemy Serbs and divided people of the country further
 * The Kingfom of Yugoslavia was established in 1929 and B&H joined the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Hitler invaded in 1941
 * Bosnia became part of the Nazi puppet regime, the Independent State of Croatia (NDH). Many Serbs joined the Chetniks (Serb nationalist movement trying to create Greater Serbia) and massacred muslims
 * In 1941, the Resolution of Sarajevo Muslims after the Ustaše in "the fez as a Muslim symbol" were persecuting Serbs in Croatia
 * The Yugoslav Partisans were led by Tito (Josip Broz Tito) who fought Axis and Chetnik forces. In 1943, B&H was reestablished as a republic within the Yugoslavian federation
 * Churchill allowed the Maclean Mission (allies visited partisans and Tito in 1943) but Tito declined the offer to help and relied on his own forces
 * In 1946, the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was established as 6 states: B&H, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia
 * Post-war Bosnia started off well with a good economy and high employment. Sarajevo also hosted the 1984 Winter Olympics. However, nationalism started to rise again
 * In 1990, B&H was governed by a coalition of 3 ethnically-based parties, causing tensions of what the country
 * should be going forward
 * B&H declared independence on 03/03/92 and Bosnian Serb militias started to mobilize across the country, leading to the Bosnian War breaking out a month later
 * The Seige of Sarajevo (92 - 96) saw ~14k deaths
 * Srebrenica massacre = Genocide of Bosniaks by the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS) (under Ratko Mladić) in 1995
 * Following the Markale massacres (twin bombings targeting Sarajevo civilians), NATO launched Operation Deliberate Force to stop VRS. This led to the Dayton Agreement in Dec 1995 to agree to peace
 * Peace has been maintained for the most part - except for 2014 unrest in Bosnia and Herzegovina (the Bosnian Spring) where factory workers had gone bankrupt over privitization and rioted
 * Half of the country is forested and it is mostly mountainous, encompassing the central Dinaric Alps. The air and water are considered amongst the cleanest is Europe
 * There are 7 major rivers, the largest being the Sava on the Northern border with Croatia
 * The Presidency rotates among three members (Bosniak, Serb, Croat) - each gets 8 months at a time of the four-year term
 * The highest political authority (High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina) is currently selected by the EU. This will continue until the country is deemed stable and B&H want to join the EU
 * Bosniaks (50%), Serbs (30%) and Croats (15%) are the main people in B&H. There is no official language - Bosnian, Croatian, English and Serbian are all used / have mutual intelligibility
 * B&H is religious. Over half the people are Muslims - the other half are mostly Christian
 * The largest cities after Sarajevo (360k) are Banja Luka (200k), Tuzla (110k), Zenica (110k), Bijeljina (110k) and Mostar (100k)
 * The war cost the economy €200 billion+. There is high unemployment and slow growth, requiring loans from the IMF
 * The economy is driven by exporting electricity, car seats and furniture
 * The currency is the Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark
 * Sarajevo International Airport (AKA Butmir airport) is the main airport and FlyBosnia is the main airline
 * Oslobođenje is a daily newspaper, based in Sarajevo and founded in 1943
 * Tourism is growing very fast, especially people visiting Sarajevo (AKA 'European Jerusalem')
 * Ivo Andrić (1892 - 1975) = Nobel Prize in Literature in 1961. He wrote about his life in Bosnia under Ottoman rule
 * Stećak = Medieval tombstones (appearing from the 12th century onwards) scattered across B&H
 * Sevdalinka is a popular traditional genre of folk music, often melancholic / lamenting and performed with a Bağlama (AKA saz) but usually with an accordion now
 * Ganga = Popular folk music found in rural towns
 * Gusle = Stringed instrument used with spoken word / poetry
 * Dušan Šestić composed the national anthem and his daughter (Marija Šestić) placed 11th in the Eurovision Song Contest 2005
 * Bosnia has a rich cinematic heritage and the Sarajevo Film Festival was established in 1995 (the largest in southern Europe)
 * Food is closely related to Turkish / European, influenced by Ottoman and Austrian rule
 * The national dish is Ćevapi (Grilled minced meat)
 * Locals are really into coffee and B&H are ranked 9th in consumption per capita
 * Football is the most popular sport and the team made their WC debut at Brazil, 2014. They have also seen success in handball, chess and judo

TH 04/06/20 In 2016, the created a rapid testing kit for foot-and-mouth disease, allowing on-site testing
 * Botswana means 'land of the tswana' - derived from the name of a Southern African ethnic
 * It is believed to be the birthplace of all modern humans 200,000 years ago
 * Southern Africa was originally made up of hunter-gatherers: Bushmen (San people and Khoi people
 * Massive herds of cattle was kept and these people prospered until 1300 AD, following the collapse of the Kingdom of Mapungubwe. They were replaced by the first Tswana-speaking groups - the Bakgalagadi
 * Sorghum and millet based trade was introduced, along with animals. There were also store rooms for grain
 * Modern Botswana is documented since 1824, showing that the Bangwaketse became the predominant power
 * Mfecane (1815 - 1840) = Period of chaos in Southern Africa that led to invaders attacking and weakening Btoswana (stealing cattle, women and children)
 * Trading with the Cape Colony in the 1850s but in 1852, the Batswana tribes (led by Sechele I) fought the Boers and both parties agreed to settle on establishing clear borders between SA and Botswana
 * During the Scramble for Africa (European invasion), the Germans and GB wanter to claim Botswana
 * In 1890, northern areas were added to GB's Bechuanaland Protectorate but they later tried to give this to British South Africa Company (did not happen due to the Jameson Raid failure in 1896
 * In 1964, the UK accepted proposals for a democratic self-government for Botswana. The seat was moved from Mahikeng (SA) to the current capital Gabarone
 * Independence was declared on 30 Sept 1966 and Seretse Khama (founder of the Botswana Democratic Party) became the first President (1966-80), leading to rapid economic + social progress
 * It is similar in size to Madagascar or France (area), is relatively flat and is covered (70%) by the Kalahari Desert
 * The Limpopo River of Southern Africa flows through Botswana
 * It has one of the few remaining large populations of the African wild dog. Chobe National Park has the world's largest concentration of African elephants
 * > 70% of land is used for grazing (as raising livestock is the main source of income). This has accelerated soil erosion and desertification
 * Over half of households own cattle
 * Botswana is in deep debt and have borrowed $7m from the US, hoping to focus on better land conservation
 * They have the oldest democracy in Africa (since 1962). It is the least corrupt African country
 * The Botswana Defence Force was formed in 1977 after attacks from Zimbabwe and SA
 * The indigenous San people have been forcibly relocated from their homes to reservations. They lived on the world's richest diamond field and now struggle to find employment and often descend into alcoholism
 * Homosexuality was legalised in 2019
 * Botswana has transformed itself from one of the poorest countries in the world to an upper middle-income country. It has one of the fastest growth rates per capita in the world
 * The currency is the Botswana pula
 * Debswana is the largest diamond mining company in Botswana and is owned 50% by the gov
 * Orapa diamond mine Largest diamond mine in the world
 * Diamonds drive the economy but are expected to dry out in the next twenty years
 * 80% of the population are the Tswana. There are also some whites and Indians in Botswana. Many Zimbabweans have also moved here
 * The 2 main cities are Gaborone (230k) and Francistown (100k)
 * English is the official language but Setswana is widely spoken
 * This language relies a lot on prefixes - e.g. the people as a whole are Batswana, one person is a Motswana, and their language is Setswana
 * 80% are Christians
 * Their culture (also called Setswana) includes a 3 way hand shake, saying 'dumelang' (hello) and women howling (ululation) when excited / happy
 * Disney's Whispers: An Elephant's Tale (2000) was set there, as was the SA comedy The Gods Must Be Crazy (1981). This is also the most successful SA movie
 * Traditional music is often acapella (with clapping) but it can also include strings and drums
 * Fatshe leno la rona ('Blessed Be This Noble Land') = National anthem since independence
 * The national dish is Seswaa (made of beef and goat meat)
 * Watermelons are believed to have originated in Botswana
 * Football is the most popular sport but they also play golf and Contract bridge is very popular (taught by the British)
 * Botswana got its first Olympic medal in 2012 (Nijel Amos won a silver in 800m)
 * Literacy moved from 70% (1990s) to 80% in the 2000s. The gov invests ~20% in education
 * There is an increased focus on science and technology, considering the current reliance on diamonds
 * In 2009, they invented a solar-powered hearing aid
 * In 2011, they developed a hybrid bull (Musi cattle) hoping to improve beef production
 * The national carrier is Air Botswana (flying to nearby African countries)
 * As they've transitioned to an upper middle-income country, the local healthcare has improved and many now have universal healthcare. Most residents live within 5km of a healthcare facility
 * There are still very high HIV/AIDS rates and >25% of people have it. This is the third highest rate in the world, behind Lesotho and Swaziland
 * Life expectancy is ~55yo
 * There are many polyamorous relationships which possibly contribute to this. Botswana have also developed their own related vocab - e.g. 'BIG HOUSE' = The person you're with / your public relationship, 'Small House' = Person / people you're cheating with on the BIG HOUSE, 'Kicking it' = Someone you're doing the 'horizontal mambo' with (a no strings attached / booty call deal)

FR 05/06/20
 * Brazil comes from the Portugese for brazilwood ('pau-brasil'), a tree that used to grow on the coast. It means 'red like an ember'
 * As brazilwood produces a deep red dye, it was highly valued by the European textile industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from BRA
 * In 16th century BRA, this was harvested by the Tupi people who sold it to Europeans
 * The official name in Portuguese was the "Land of the Holy Cross" (Terra da Santa Cruz) but European sailors called it "Land of Brazil" (Terra do Brasil) because of the wood trade
 * Some also called it 'Land of the Parrots' and in the Guarani language, it is called 'Pindorama' (land of the palm trees)
 * The earliest pottery in the Western Hemisphere was found in BRA's Amazon, near Santarém
 * The Tupi were the indigenous group, who lived alongside Guarani people, Gê people and Arawak people. They each had their own territories resulting from tribal wars
 * Pedro Álvares Cabral discovered Brazil and claimed it for the Portuguese Empire] on 22 April 1500
 * Colonisation began in the 1530s and Brazil was divided into the fifteen Captaincies of Brazil. These became problematic and changed to the Governorate General of Brazil. Salvador, Bahia then became Portugal's S. American capital but Indigenous and European groups lived in constant war
 * By the mid-16th century, cane sugar became BRA's most important export and slaves from Africa had became the largest import to deal with demand. This declined at the end of the 17th century and gold was discovered at ]Minas Gerais] by [[Bandeirantes (explorers of Brazil who planted a flag to claim land for Portugal)
 * The resultant Brazilian Gold Rush of the 1690s attracted thousands of new settlers
 * Others, such as the French and Dutch, tried to colonize parts of Brazil but Portugal retained control and also looked to snuff out slave rebellion (e.g. Palmares (quilombo)) and other movements (e.g. Inconfidência Mineira in 1789)
 * In 1815, a pluricontinental monarch was formed as the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves
 * The Empire of Brazil (founded by Pedro I of Brazil) fought them in the 1822 War of Independence of Brazil
 * BRA declared independence from Portugal on 7 Sept 1822. Portugal recognised them 3 years later
 * Pedro II of Brazil AKA Pedro the Magnanimous reigned from 1831 - 1889. His father's abrupt abdication and departure to Europe meant he became emperor at 5yo
 * Slavery was abolished in 1888 with the 'Golden Law' / Lei Áurea after much debate and resistance
 * Under Pedro II, BRA won 3 wars: the Platine War, the Uruguayan War and the deadliest and bloodiest inter-state war in Latin America's history - the Paraguayan War
 * In 1889, the monarchy was overthrown by a military coup, even though there was no desire amongst most for change
 * Deodoro da Fonseca became first president
 * The early republic was a dictatorship and there was also a coup in 1930 (Brazilian Revolution of 1930) led by Getúlio Vargas who became president and ended the First Brazilian Republic
 * In the 1930s (Vargas Era, there were three failed attempts to remove Vargas as dictator for government brutality and press censorship
 * Vargas shot himself in the chest following the Rua Tonelero attack in 1954 (a failed killing of his political rival Carlos Lacerda)
 * His suicide note ended: "Serenely, I take my first step on the road to eternity. I leave life to enter history."
 * Juscelino Kubitschek AKA JK became president in 1956, leading to economic prosperity and constructing Brasília in 1960
 * Dictatorship was reinstated in the late 60s and 70s but democracy returned in the 1980s
 * José Sarney became president in 1985 but could not control the economic crisis and hyperinflation he inherited form the military regime
 * In 1994, vice president Fernando Henrique Cardoso (AKA FHC) introduced the Plano Real to stabilize the economy. He helped the economy recover and won the 1994 and 1998 presidential elections
 * Lula (Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva) became president in 2003 and was replaced in 2010 by Dilma Rousseff (first female). She was impeached in 2016 and replaced by Michel Temer
 * Termer and many of his cabinet are accused of corruption as part of Operation Car Wash
 * BRA is the 5th largest by area and shares borders with every S. American country except Ecuador and Chile
 * It is the only country in the world that has the equator and the Tropic of Capricorn running through it
 * The highest point is the Pico da Neblina (2,995m)
 * Major rivers include the Amazon River and the Paraná River
 * It is the most biologically diverse country in the world
 * Under the Presidency of Jair Bolsonaro, the rate of deforestation of the Amazon rainforest has increased sharply
 * The four main parties are: Workers' Party (PT), Brazilian Social Democracy Party (PSDB), Brazilian Democratic Movement (MDB) and Democrats (DEM)
 * The legal system is considered slow with many cases taking years. However, they have adapted well to social media by uploading to YouTube and were also the first court in the world to transmit sessions on TV
 * They have the largest S. American armed forces. They have not been invaded since the 1865 Paraguayan War. They have taken over the gov 3 times
 * Brazil has a high homicide rate and the third highest prison population (after China and the US) at >700,000
 * They have the largest economy in Latin America and have been the largest producers of coffee for over 150 years
 * They're also major producers of oranges and sugar cane
 * Industry (especially cars and steel) accounts for 1/3 of their GDP. They are the fourth largest car market in the world
 * The currency is the Brazilian real
 * In 2002, they got a $30b rescue package from the IMF and repaid this in 2005 (1y early)
 * Corruption costs BRA over $40b a year - it is expected in local gov so much that voters / media only worry about it once it exceeds certain levels
 * Brazil cost = The increased operational costs of doing business in BRA. This is driven by many factors - e.g. high crime rates needing extra security, economic instability, economic divisions into cartels, high corruption levels etc.
 * BRA's cooperative sector provides half of all their food
 * Tourism saw major rises in the mid-2000s but fell after 2009 and the effects of the Great Recession. It recovered in 2010
 * BRA is one of 3 Lating American countries to have a synchrotron (particle collider)
 * Famous scientists include Alberto Santos-Dumont (developed hot aid balloons and dirigibles), Manuel de Abreu (inventor of abreugraphy to screen the lungs for tb) and Vital Brazil (discovered anti-venom serums to treat bites from the Crotalus, Bothrops and Elaps genera. He was also the first to develop anti-scorpion and anti-spider serums)
 * César Lattes (1924 - 20050 was one of the discoverers of the pion (quark + antiquark) at the University of Bristol
 * Fritz Müller (1821 - 1897) = German biologist who moved to São Paulo and discovered Müllerian mimicry. He was an early believer of Darwin's theory of evolution
 * Artur Avila = Brazilian mathematician working on dynamical systems and spectral theory. First Latin American to win the Fields Medal (2014)
 * Brazil have recently focused on highway construction and the railway system has been declining since WWII
 * LATAM Brasil is the main airline and the largest / busiest airport of BRA is São Paulo–Guarulhos International Airport
 * There are ~2,500 airports in BRA, second only to the US
 * They've had universal health care since 1988 but it is still ranked fairly low. Life expectancy is 75yo
 * The literacy rate is 90%
 * The press started in 1808, radio in 1922 and TV in 1950
 * The white-to-mixed (pardo Brazilians) split is around 50%-40%, then others / black
 * They have the world's largest population of Uncontacted peoples
 * >80% are Christian (usually Catholic but with protestant growing fast), followed by atheism (10%) and the Spiritism / other
 * BRA has the world's largest Catholic population
 * The largest cities are São Paulo (21m), Rio de Janeiro (14m), Belo Horizonte (5m), Recife (4m) and Brasília (4m)
 * BRA is the only Portuguese speaking country in the Americas. The language is slightly different to regular Portuguese, as in American English vs. British English
 * Over 200 local fringe languages are spoken
 * Riograndenser Hunsrückisch German = High German dialect spoken by Germans living in Brazil
 * Learning at least one second language is mandatory for school children
 * The architecture of Brazil is influenced by Europe, largely due to the Portuguese history. Recently the style has shown more mixed influences - e.g. the work of Oscar Niemeyer
 * Samba music was based on African roots but comes from the Portuguese 'sambar' (to do joiner's work)
 * The dance (samba-enredo) is practiced by samba schools. It originated from Bahia
 * Choro / chorinho (cry / little cry) = Brazilian instrumental music. Despite its name, it's often happy and fast
 * Capoeira music is used to soundtrack the sport of capoeira
 * Bossa nova is a mix of samba and jazz. It means 'new trend' and became a popular type of music in the 1950s-60s
 * Famous authors include José de Alencar AKA Erasmo (1829 - 1877), known for his Indianism style and more modern writers such as Jorge Amado, João Guimarães Rosa and Clarice Lispector
 * Machado de Assis (1839 - 1908) = Considered BRA's greatest writer. He was a mulatto from a poor family who was largely an autodidact. He also later taught himself French, English, German & Greek. Harold Bloom called him the greatest black writer in Western literature
 * Cuisine varies by region. The national dish is Feijoada (stew of beans with beef and pork)
 * The national beverage is coffee and cachaça is Brazil's native liquor
 * Caipirinha is made from sugarcane and lime. It is the national cocktail
 * Popular snacks include (food) (pastry), Coxinha (teardrop-shaped chicken nugget) and Pão de queijo (cheese bread)
 * Cinema began in the 19th century during the early days of the Belle Époque. During the 1960s, the Cinema Novo movement rose to prominence with the works of Glauber Rocha
 * There were also major successes in the 90s and 00s, including City of God (2002 film)
 * Famous painters include Victor Meirelles and Pedro Américo
 * Other than football, volleyball, basketball, auto racing and martial arts are popular. They've won the Basketball WC twice
 * Brazil has produced 3 world champion F1 drivers and all won it multiple times: Emerson Fittipaldi (x2, 1972 & 1974), Nelson Piquet (x3, 1981, 1983 & 1987) and Ayrton Senna (x3, 1988, 1990 & 1991)
 * Other notable drivers are Rubens Barrichello and Felipe Massa