User:570nlh/sandbox

Release assessment or exposure pathways
570ajd (talk) 04:19, 22 November 2011 (UTC)I think it would look neater to put some of your information into subheadings so your entry is easy to follow.

Various studies have indicated that prions (PrPSC) that infect sheep and goats with the fatal transmissible encephalopathy known as scrapie, are able to persist in soil for years without losing their pathogenic activity. Dissemination of prions into the environment can occur from several sources: mainly, infectious placenta or amniotic fluid of sheep and possibly environmental contamination by saliva or excrements.

Confirmatory tesing for scrapie can only be achieved by applying Immunohistochemistry (IHC) of disease-associated prion protein (PrPSc) to tissues collected postmortem, including obex, retropharyngeal lymph node and palatine tonsil. A live animal diagnostic, not confirmatory, test was approved in 2008 for immunochemistry testing on rectal biopsy-derived lymphoid tissue by USDA.



Natural transmission of scrapie in the field seems to occur via the alimentary tract in the majority of cases, and scrapie-free sheep flocks can become infected on pastures where outbreaks of scrapie had been observed before. These findings point to a sustained contagion in the environment, and notably the soil.

Prion concentration in birth fluids does not alter the infectivity of the prions. Even when placentas have little PrPSC (Prion protein - scrapie) kids born to naturally or experimentally infected does become infected. PrPSC are shed at a higher percent, 52%- 72% in in sheep placentas then goat placenta at 5-10% in study trials at the USDA Agricultural Research Service by Dr. O’Rourke. Fecal concentration of PrPSC has been reported in the feces of sheep both in the terminal and the early preclinical stages of the disease suggesting that prions are likely to be shed into the environment throughout the pathogenesis. Several sources of prions in feces could be postulated including environmental ingestion and swallowing infected saliva however the most likely source is shedding from the gut-associated lymphoid tissue. Ruminants have specialized Peyer's patches that throughout the length of the ileum amount to approximately 100,000 follicles and all of these could be infected and shedding prions in to the lumen. Scrapie prions have been found in the Peyer's patches of naturally infected nonclinical lambs as young as 4 months of age.

Risk of exposure through contaminated soil via placentas or feces
Ingestion of soil by grazing sheep has been measured in two soil types, at two stocking rates and over two grazing seasons. Animals ingested up to 44g soil per kg of body weight between May and November. Rainfall and stocking rate emerged as factors influencing ingestion. The effect of soil type and herbage on offer was less evident.

The average weight of an adult sheep is 249.4 pounds. If an adult sheep ate 400g/kg of soil as predicted by D. McGrath et al. then the average sheep would ingest approximately 45,000 g over 6 months or 251g per day. Assuming the soil was contaminated with prions (PrPSC) from feces or birth fluids then potentially the sheep would be infected. The concentration of the prions is uncertain however as concentration is not directly proportionate to infectivity.

Factors affecting Prion infectivity in the soil: Factors affecting prion infectivity in the soil have been shown to include the length of time in the soil and the binding abilities of the soil.

'Length of time': For a detailed risk assessment of scrapie-contaminated soil it was of major importance to analyze whether the detectable PrPSc in the soil extracts still exhibited oral infectivity after incubation times up to 29 months. A bioassay with Syrian hamsters was performed by feeding the animals with contaminated soil or aqueous soil extracts that had been collected after soil incubation for 26 and 29 months, respectively. Hamsters fed with contaminated soil exhibited first scrapie- associated symptoms at 13,166 days (95% CI)after the first application. The hamsters reached the terminal stage of scrapie at 162,612 days (95% CI) after the first feeding. This indicates substantial amounts of persistent infectivity in soil that had been incubated for 26 and 29 months. In Iceland, in 1978, a program was implemented to eradicate scrapie and affected flocks were culled, premises were disinfected, sheep houses were burnt and after 2-3 years, the premises were restocked with lambs from scrapie free areas. Between 1978 and 2004, scrapie recurred on 33 farms. Nine recurrences occurred 14-21 years after culling as a result of environmental contamination.

'Soil types' : the binding abilities of different soil types have been shown to enhance disease penetrance. Soil containing the common clay mineral montmorillonite (Mte) and kaolinite (Kte) binds more effectively with the prions (PrPSC) than soil that contains quartz. Enhanced transmissibility of soil-bound prions may explain the environmental spread of scrapie despite low levels shed into the environment. The mechanism by which Mte or other soil components enhances the transmissibility of particle bound prions remains to be clarified. Prion binding to Mte or other soil components may partially protect PrPSC from denaturation or proteolysis in the digestive tract allowing more disease agent to be taken up from the gut. Adsorption of PrPSc soil may alter aggregation state of the protein, shifting the size distribution toward more infectious prion protein particles thereby increasing the infectious units. For prion disease to be transmitted via ingestion of prion contaminated soil, prions must also remain infectious by the oral route of exposure. Researchers at the University of Wisconsin investigated the oral infectivity of Mte and soil bound prions. The effects of prion source (via infected brain homogenate and purified PrPSc) and dose on penetrance (proportion of animals eventually exhibiting clinical signs of scrapie) and incubation period (time to onset of clinical symptoms) was evaluated. Approximately 38% of animals receiving 200ng of unbound clarified PrPSc orally exhibited clinical symptoms with an incubation period for infected animals of 203, 633 days. In contrast, all animals orally dosed with an equivalent amount of Mte-bound PrPSc manifested disease symptoms in 195,637 days. Animals orally receiving Mte soil alone or 10-fold less unbound clarified PrPSc (20ng) remained asymptomatic throughout the course of the experiment. These data established that the Mte-bound prions remain infectious via the oral route of exposure but that the agent binding Mte increases disease penetrance, enhancing the efficiency of oral transmission.

Conclusion
Prions (PrPSc) are shed from sheep and goats in birth fluids, feces and other excrements. The concentration of the prions is uncertain however it is not directly proportionate to infectivity. Sheep do ingest soil and therefore soil represents a plausible environmental reservoir of scrapie which can persist in the environment for years. Longevity of the prions and the attachment of soil particles likely influences the persistence and infectivity of prions in the environment. Effective methods to inactivate prions in the soil are currently lacking and the effects of natural degradation mechanisms on prion infectivity are largely unknown. An improved understanding of the processes affecting the mobility, persistence and bioavailability of prions in soil is needed for the management of prion contaminated environments. A system for estimating the prion binding capacity of soil on US farms using simple soil analysis may give us an estimate of the prion risk in the environment and if prion binding is likely possibly the use of soil amendments or top dressings may help to mitigate the infectious prions. Lichens, Lobaria pulmonaria, may have potential for reducing the number of prions because some lichen species contain a protease enzyme that show promise in breaking down the prion. Further work to clone and characterize the protease, assess its effects on prion infectivity and determine which organism or organisms present in lichens produce or influence the protease activity is warranted and is currently under investigation.