User:745234R5/Crime in Honduras/Bibliography

Annotated Bibliography

 * Appleby, Peter. “InSight Crime's 2022 Homicide Round-Up.” InSight Crime, 14 Feb. 2023, https://insightcrime.org/news/insight-crime-2022-homicide-round-up/#Honduras .
 * This article details Honduras’ most recent crime statistics as of 2022, noting that Honduras was Central America’s deadliest country in terms of homicide rate. It details Xiomara Castro, the recent president, and her recent attempts to curb this rate by implementing an anti-gang crackdown. Appleby also notes that the majority of homicides in Honduras occur due to extortion and drug trafficking, as well as within the transport sector.
 * Recent Statistics on Crime:
 * “Nonetheless, the country reduced homicides by 12.7% compared to 2021.
 * “With a homicide rate of 35.8 per 100,000 people, according to government figures
 * Government Responses:
 * “President Xiomara Castro stirred controversy near the end of the year by implementing an anti-gang crackdown that arrested 652 suspected gang members and dismantled 38 gangs.”
 * Castro’s recent crackdown has drawn controversy and criticism due to its suspension of certain constitutional rights, drawing attention to how crime can be stopped in Honduras without necessarily forgoing democracy.
 * Berg, Louis-Alexandre, and Marlon Carranza. "Crime, violence, and community-based prevention in Honduras." (2015).
 * This is an eighty-page research report and is part of a series on Justice, Security and Development. “The series presents the findings and critical reflections of a three-year work program aimed at improving development approaches to justice and security stresses in fragile and conflict-affected settings. Drawing from reviews of current scholarship, in-depth field research, and engagement with development programs, the papers in the series seek to identify the key challenges and obstacles to effective development, and propose ways to re-frame the challenges and solutions as a basis for more effective development programs.” Several possible usages of this article are highlighted below.
 * Violence prevention measures
 * Communities in Honduras have found ways to prevent violence.
 * “By organizing collectively and building networks with municipal and national authorities, these communities have prevented criminal groups from taking root in their neighborhoods.”
 * Challenges to violence prevention
 * Societal-level factors
 * “A combination of societal-level factors, including a shift in the transnational drug trade, rising unemployment, the prevalence of drugs and firearms, and rapid urbanization, have deepened their vulnerability to violence.”
 * Political and institutional context
 * “In general, a seemingly arbitrary and unpredictable system of local governance, combined with unreliable police, justice, and other national institutions, constrain prevention efforts by limiting access to resources and services.”
 * Tactics for strengthening community-based prevention
 * “First, the research found that it is possible to strengthen the type of community organization that enables prevention …”
 * “Second, it identified the factors that have weakened community capability for prevention …”
 * “Third, it highlighted features of the institutional context at the municipal and national levels that could be addressed to facilitate community-based prevention efforts.”
 * Nature and scale of violence
 * Deeply entrenched and goes beyond what individual neighborhoods can handle
 * “The factors driving violent crime in Honduras go far beyond what individual neighborhoods can handle, particularly the transnational drug trade, economic inequality, political polarization, and governance challenges.”
 * Entry points for further programming and research
 * Invest in community organization
 * Target risk factors that affect community capability for prevention, especially drug and alcohol consumption, the prevalence of firearms, and the limited access to education
 * Strengthen municipal-level planning and response
 * Explore opportunities for police and justice sector reform
 * Build the evidence base


 * Berg, Louis-Alexandre, and Marlon Carranza. “Organized Criminal Violence and Territorial Control.” Journal of Peace Research, vol. 55, no. 5, 2018, pp. 566–581., https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343317752796 . This sixteen page journal entry was taken from a much more in depth volume that looked at crime in the Western Hemisphere and Central America specifically. It provided me with key details regarding the regional distribution of crime within Honduras and its dangerous urban neighborhoods.
 * Regional Variations
 * “In Honduras, the homicide rate increased rapidly between 2005 and 2011. Yet 65% of homicides occurred in only 5% of municipalities. In La Ceiba, the Honduran city with the third highest homicide rate, three fourths of violent deaths occurred in one-third of the city’s neighborhoods.”
 * “To control territory and maintain access to illicit markets, criminal organizations must interact with the public, and they sometimes exercise quasi-political authority. Yet the violence associated with this authority varies widely.”
 * Blume, Laura. “Honduran Women Leaders in the Crosshairs.” NACLA, North American Congress on Latin America, 31 Jan. 2023, https://nacla.org/honduran-women-leaders-crosshairs .
 * Blume discusses the 2021 murder of a Honduran women's rights advocate and congresswoman. She used this instance to highlight the broader domestic trend of assassination rates of public figures in Honduras, especially among left-wing politicians and activists. She also highlights the country's extremely high rates of femicide and argues that weakness of state institutions like the judiciary and the police lead to high rates of unsolved killings which create a culture of impunity. She also discusses the work of the Violence Against Public Figures project (VAPF) and their work compiling datasets to track patterns of violence across Central America.
 * 590 public figures killed in Honduras in the past 15 years: 92 politicians, 88 journalists, 149 judicial workers, and over 200 activists
 * Honduras has the highest femicide rate in Latin America: 6.2 murders per 100,000 women; 278 killed in 2020
 * “Perpetrators often walk away from their crimes without punishment. This is exacerbated by the fact that judges, lawyers, and prosecutors are frequently targeted for assassination”
 * 19 percent of murdered judicial workers are women
 * The congresswoman reportedly turned down a $400,000 bribe to abandon her candidacy
 * Bosworth, James. “Honduras: Organized Crime Gained Amid Political Crisis.” Woodrow Wilson Center Reports on the Americas, no. 29, Nov. 2011, pp. 62–103. http://en.ahu.edu.cn/_upload/article/files/6e/e3/63b41fac411bac96d9a503b2bc9f/f97ec71a-4f62-4bf2-8cbf-2370b37cddba.pdf#page=71 .
 * Bosworth provides a detailed overview and analysis of the drug trade in Honduras, including the major figures and cartels involved. He also provides an analysis of the Honduran political sphere under former President Manuel Zelaya, who was forced out by a coup. He also discusses the domestic effects of a reduction in foreign aid from the United States after the coup. Bosworth argues that the ensuing political turmoil after the coup against Zelaya weakened institutions and exacerbated corruption problems, which benefited the operations of organized crime and made it more difficult for the state to enforce its laws.
 * Key location for midway point and exchange of narcotics products on the way from South America to US
 * “Youth gangs in Honduras provide the traffickers with organizations that can intimidate and murder for cheap”
 * Trafficking routes through Honduras are dominated by Mexican Cartels like Sinaloa
 * Zelaya Coup
 * “the organized crime situation in Honduras did play a secondary role in destabilizing the Zelaya government. By corrupting local government officials and undermining the professionalism of the Honduran military, it weakened the institutions … organized crime also benefited greatly from the turmoil caused by the coup”
 * US Assistance to Honduras
 * Merida Initiative provided funding to security forces in Honduras
 * FBI has provided counter-terrorism and kidnapping training to local forces
 * US has supplied military equipment including naval ships and the DoD has provided funding for Honduran Military upgrades
 * Received $68 million in US aid in fiscal year 2011
 * Carreras, Miguel. “THE IMPACT OF CRIMINAL VIOLENCE ON REGIME LEGITIMACY IN LATIN AMERICA.” Latin American Research Review, vol. 48, no. 3, 2013, pp. 85–107. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43670095 . Accessed 2 Mar. 2023.
 * Carragas conducted a study to determine the effects of high violence rates on citizens' support for political institutions. He concludes that victimization and even the perception of high violence levels decrease the likelihood of public support for political systems, since those systems are unresponsive to the basic needs of the citizenry. Carreras argues that widespread public disenchantment with their political leaders and the political system reduce accountability of leaders and contribute to emergence of authoritarianism and political instability.
 * 1990s neoliberal reforms are partially responsible for growth of the drug trade and increased rates of crime and violence due to their effects of heightening inequality
 * Spread of drug trafficking industry has disproportionately increased violence in poorer urban areas
 * “Police are sometimes completely absent from the most dangerous areas … in other cases, the police respond to increased insecurity with arbitrary violence, which aggravates the perception of insecurity among citizens”
 * Increased levels of violence are correlated with reduced levels of support for political institutions
 * “The impact of perception of violence and victimization on system support may have deleterious effects on democracy … [it] may lead disenchanted Latin American citizens to support extralegal, quasi-authoritarian means to restore order”
 * Doherty, Sean. “Why Money Launderers in Honduras May Be Getting Away with It.” InSight Crime, November 2, 2022. https://insightcrime.org/news/why-money-launderers-honduras-may-be-getting-away-with-it/ .
 * This is a news article on Insight Crime about a controversial reform to Honduras’ law against money laundering. This recent legal change means that proving someone has unexplained wealth is no longer enough to charge them with money laundering, leading to criticism that the reform effectively gives criminals immunity from prosecution. Critics argue that the reform was approved as part of a plan to limit and shield against future investigations.
 * Giving criminals immunity from prosecution
 * “... a list of 45 individuals who have recovered their freedom thanks to the reform despite accusations of being frontmen for drug cartels.”
 * “Five others were released … alleged to be laundering money for well-known Honduran drug traffickers, including the Valle Valle group.”
 * Giving politicians immunity from prosecution
 * “And given that several public officials have had their charges dropped thanks to the reform, a question mark hangs over the motives of the lawmakers who passed them.”
 * “The government of President Xiomara Castro also faced criticism last February due to a plan to grant amnesty to officials who had served under her husband, former President Manuel Zelaya (2006-2009).”
 * “Homicides in Honduras: Association for a More Just Society.” Homicides in Honduras | Association for a More Just Society, ASJ USA, Mar. 2020, https://www.asj-us.org/learn/honduras-homicides .
 * This informational website provided statistical data on violence and the rate at which it affects certain demographics in Honduras. Taken from the ASJ Organization, a group of Christian who strive to create more just societies on an international scale, this website provided valuable information on homicide rates over the last twenty years in Honduras.
 * Murder (Statistics)
 * “From 2005 to 2011, Honduras’ homicide rate skyrocketed until it reached the highest rate in the world – 86.5 per 100,000. This means that for every 100,000 inhabitants, 87 people were murdered. In comparison, Honduras’ homicide rate was 18 times higher than the homicide rate in the United States at the time."
 * “Since 2011, Honduras’ homicide rate has been reduced in half – an incredible improvement that allows more people to live securely and build brighter futures."
 * “However, there is still much work to be done. Compared to other countries around the world, Honduras is still one of the most violent places in the world with a homicide rate of 44.7 per 100,000 in 2019. This means that an average of 13 people are murdered everyday.”
 * “Honduras has the highest youth homicide rate in the world. On average, children living in Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador are 10 times more likely to be killed than a child who lives in the United States. Because of the threats of organized crime and gang activity, boys born in Honduras have a one-in-nine chance of being murdered during their life. Honduras has the fifth-highest rate of violence against women in the world. Every 18 hours, a woman is a victim of a violent death.”
 * International Crisis Group. “Crime and Violence.” Fight and Flight: Tackling the Roots of Honduras’ Emergency, International Crisis Group, 2019, pp. 15-23. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep31407.6 .
 * This report comes from an NGO, independent think-tank. It details the origins of violent gangs in Honduras, tracking their growth and progression since the coup of 2009. It also details the Honduran government response to these violent gangs, citing the increased use of military force to fight these gangs, as well as diminishing corruption within these groups. The article notes the mixed results of these new crackdowns, with rises in corruption and rates of over-incarceration. The authors conclude their report by pointing out Honduras’ enduring perception as a nation filled with crime, despite a reported decrease in homicides, and recommend more investment in violence prevention and rehabilitation initiatives.
 * Key Actors in Organized Crime:
 * “With the support of the Mexican cartels, the country’s major smuggling clans – the Valle and the Cachiros – established control over the Honduran border with Guatemala and the northern Caribbean coast respectively, having already cultivated political influence and popular support in those regions."
 * “Among the differences between the two largest gangs, the 18th Street Gang is often linked with extortion rackets, while the MS-13 is allegedly more involved in local drug peddling. Both activities drive high levels of violence in the fight for territorial control."
 * "The two larger outfits have managed to absorb many local groups over the past few decades, but others have also emerged to challenge them. Such is the case of the Chirizos, which got its start by taking on MS-13 in downtown Tegucigalpa. Many other gangs have emerged in the poorest neighbourhoods of San Pedro Sula, such as Los Vatos Locos, Los Tercereños, La Ponce and Los Olanchanos.”
 * Scholarly Debates on Effects of Crackdown:
 * The effects of Honduras’ reform efforts for officers has largely been contested, with some arguing that the program has ousted almost 6,000 officers for corruption, but others arguing that only a third of those officers were officially investigated.
 * Some studies found that extortion from gangs like MS-13 has decreased following the crackdown, but local observers argue that extortion has actually increased over time, becoming more formal.
 * There is also scholarly debate on violence overall in Honduras, and whether decreased homicide rates help the overall perception of violence in the country. Some scholars argue that violence against women and LGBTQ+ individuals remains largely the same, muddling this definition.
 * Kolb, Ana-Constantina. “OUTGUNNED: THE HONDURAN FIGHT AGAINST TRANSNATIONAL COCAINE TRAFFICKERS.” Journal of International Affairs, vol. 66, no. 1, 2012, pp. 213–23. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24388264 .
 * This article comes from the Journal of International Affairs, a peer-reviewed academic journal. It details the effect of transnational organized crime (TOC) in Honduras, specifically cocaine trafficking. Kolb highlights key developments in Honduras that allow TOC to exist, including the country’s recent modernization and its government structure. The article concludes by noting that Honduras currently lacks the infrastructure to take on TOC; however, Kolb suggests policies where other countries offer support, as TOC threatens to destabilize democracy in Honduras.
 * The role of TOC in Honduras:
 * “79% of all cocaine transfers from South America are routed through Honduras.”
 * “In Honduras, Atlântida is the province where most murders occur. According to the UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), one person out of every 1,000 is killed in a violent crime."
 * “Honduras ranked I29th out of 183 countries in Transparency International's 2011 Corruption Perception Index.”
 * Scholarly Consensus and Debate:
 * The role of the international community is being contested, with some calling for an internationally-funded board to monitor Honduras
 * While the rates of violent crime are not contested, much debate continues on its origins and why TOC specifically continues in Honduras.
 * Do Honduras’ weak institutions contribute to its high rates of violence, or do high rates of violence undermine institutions?
 * Landa-Blanco, Miguel, Hyunjung Cheon, Luis Gerardo Reyes Flores, Cassia Spohn, and Charles Max Katz. "Violence in Honduras from 2008 to 2018." Injury prevention 26, no. 2 (2020): 191-193.
 * This is a report published in the BMJ, a weekly peer-reviewed medical trade journal. It focuses on “the characteristics of homicide victims, specifically sex and age and the weapons used” and discusses implications of the findings “in light of public safety in Honduras.” Several possible usages of this article are highlighted below.
 * Key statistical findings
 * “In 2011, the homicide rate in Honduras peaked, becoming the highest of any country in the world; between 2012 and 2018, that rate dropped by 52%.”
 * “Young males have been the most likely of all Hondurans to become homicide victims.”
 * “In 80.3% of homicides, a firearm was the weapon used; 14.4% involved a sharp or blunt instrument, 3.2% involved suffocation and 1.7% involved some other type of weapon … Firearms were more often used when the victim was male (81.0%) … Homicides of females were more likely than those of males to involve a sharp or blunt instrument … or suffocation … homicides of younger victims were more likely … to have been caused by suffocation …”
 * Causes of crime
 * Proliferation of gangs
 * “We note that young Honduran males are at particular risk of becoming involved in homicide, as victims and perpetrators, especially when associated with gangs.”
 * Availability of firearms
 * “... lax laws addressing firearm possession may have contributed to most of these incidents.”
 * “... may also be linked with illegal firearms trafficking from the USA.”
 * Results of crime
 * “Honduran citizens have sought safety by migrating north in record numbers … high homicide rate, together with its socioeconomic problems … natural disaster vulnerability and governance-related issues, may be promoting forced immigration …”
 * Prevention measures
 * “Programmes promoting prosocial, informal methods of social control …”
 * “Community-based focused deterrence programmes offer gun offenders alternatives to illicit activity through job training and counselling …”
 * Data quality and availability as a scholarly concern
 * Details are very limited
 * “Alleged motives” often missing
 * “Suspect’s demographics and the relationship between victim and suspect” often unknown
 * Work to be done
 * “Comprehensive homicide data”
 * “Injury surveillance systems incorporating hospital and caregiver data”
 * Analysis of “community factors that may be responsible for violence and causal factors behind the homicide reductions experienced since 2011”
 * Matute, Arturo. “Honduras Makes Progress in Tamping Violence - but at What Cost?” United States Institute of Peace, 23 Jan. 2023, https://www.usip.org/publications/2023/01/honduras-makes-progress-tamping-violence-what-cost .
 * (Enzo Battaglia) Matute discusses President Xiomara Castro's anti-gang policies and the controversy around the state of emergency declaration, which human rights groups have criticized for giving too much power to police. He also provides an overview of the difficulties the government has faced in containing organized crime and discusses a little bit about the role of the United States's immigration policy.
 * 36 murders per 100,000 in 2022, down from 85 per 100,000 in some prior years
 * This rate still puts Honduras among the world’s most violent countries
 * Aim of the emergency measures is to “eradicate extortion”—which is a hindrance to authorities in prosecuting gangs that exercise near-total control over the poorest urban neighborhoods
 * One survey suggested that over 200,000 Honduras households were victims of extortion in 2022, and 99% of crimes went unreported
 * Honduran police forces have had severe problems with corruption, and officers are often perpetrators of extortion along with street gangs (maras).
 * Prosecutions of gang members are rare, and only involve those at the lowest tier of the gangs when they occur at all
 * During the first month of the emergency measures, Honduras arrested 650 suspected gang members. El Salvador’s similar crackdown at the same time appeared to be much more intense, arresting 16,000 people in the same time period.
 * (Lucas Jonathan Wang Zheng) This article was published online at the United States Institute of Peace. It centers on Honduras’ declaration of a national security emergency in an effort to tackle gang violence, with the aim of “eradicating extortion.”
 * Castro’s decision to declare a national security emergency
 * Gang violence and extortion are major problems in impoverished urban areas of Northern Central America, with more than 200,000 households in Honduras being victimized in 2022. Bus and taxi drivers are particularly affected, with gangs killing 60 drivers over the past year. The government has declared a national security emergency and suspended certain constitutional guarantees in affected communities to combat the issue.
 * Influence from the Salvadoran government
 * The crackdown in Honduras has resulted in hundreds of arrests, and the emergency has been extended several times. However, the government's approach has been less aggressive and more focused on addressing the root causes of crime than the approach taken by El Salvador's government. Human rights groups argue that the measures infringe on community rights and may not be effective in the long run.
 * Difficulty to fight extortion
 * Honduran President Xiomara Castro faces challenges in addressing extortion and gang violence, which involves sophisticated actors and has led to a heavily indebted government. Police investigative techniques have not kept pace with these crimes, and the government is attempting to balance short-term measures with long-term strategies. Castro has removed military officers from anti-gang operations, but critics are divided on the speed of her reforms.
 * Balancing between aid and human rights
 * Despite challenges, President Castro has signed an agreement with the UN to establish an international anti-corruption commission. The US should help the government move towards sustainable, long-term efforts that strengthen institutions and protect the country's most vulnerable citizens, while promoting regional cooperation and better governance without sacrificing human rights.
 * Papadovassilakis, Alex. “Honduras Gangs Turn to Bus Workers to Collect Extortion Fees.” InSight Crime, 19 Aug. 2020, https://insightcrime.org/news/brief/honduras-gangs-bus-workers-collect-extortion/ .
 * This article details how MS-13 is targeting bus workers in Honduras, forcing them to work as middlemen between the gang and other public transport operators. 21 bus sector employees were arrested by Honduras’ anti-gang crackdown unit for being part of this operation. The author notes that bus drivers can be killed if they do not cooperate, with 50 public transport officials being killed in 2019.
 * Specific Instances of Transportation Crime:
 * “The tactic emerged after increased police presence at transport terminals made it more difficult for gang members to shake down bus drivers and owners through phone calls or handwritten notes.
 * “In April, Honduras saw hundreds of transport workers protest, demanding that the government take action against extortion. The protests, however, ultimately led to a rise in extortion fees, increasing from 900 lempiras (about $36) per week to 1,200 (about $47).”
 * Weaknesses in Corruption:
 * “Corrupt security forces and public officials have been found to be involved in extortion rackets, and bringing extortion threats to the police can be futile as well. Of 431 instances of extortion presented to San Pedro Sula’s anti-extortion police division in 2018, only one led to a court judgement.”
 * The overall corruption through the Honduras’ government, specifically the judiciary, points to the weak institutions of Honduras contributing to rates of violence.
 * Reuters. “Honduras Expands and Extends Its State of Emergency.” NBCNews.com, NBCUniversal News Group, 22 Feb. 2023, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/honduras-expands-extends-state-emergency-rcna71757 .
 * This NBC News article sourced from Reuters gives a brief and recent update of the Honduran government's crackdown on gang violence that has included a state of emergency declaration. The article gives basic background on the problems related to gang violence in the country and provides updated statistics on the decrease in murder rates. They also discuss the political and legal implications of the state of emergency, which temporarily suspends some constitutional rights.
 * Honduras extended its State of Emergency declaration (started on Dec. 6 2022) for the second time, also expanding it to include a larger portion of the country
 * Originally covered only the two largest cities, but now includes a total of 123 cities
 * Hondurans face extortion that both prevents them from reporting crimes but also compels them to pay taxes to local gangs/militias
 * “The suspension of rights was extended to municipalities where, according to our analysis, criminal groups have migrated to evade the actions of the police and the state” —Honduras National Police Director Gustavo Sanchez
 * Honduras’ crackdown follows a yearlong campaign in El Salvador, which has been very successful in generating arrests and has widespread domestic support—but has also filled prisons to capacity and been criticized for possible human rights violations
 * Ruhl, J. Mark. "Trouble in Central America: Honduras Unravels." Journal of Democracy 21, no. 2 (2010): 93-107.
 * This is an article published in the Journal of Democracy. It discusses the political turmoil at the time of the writing. In 2009, the Honduran military ousted President Manuel Zelaya in a coup due to a constitutional crisis. An interim government resisted pressures to reinstate Zelaya and held elections for a new president in 2010, but democracy remains uncertain due to competing elites' distrust and the population's disillusionment with poverty, corruption, and crime.
 * Weakness of state (in controlling crime)
 * “In addition, Honduran governments proved incapable of controlling a skyrocketing crime rate.”
 * “... transshipment of narcotics from Colombia to the United States. Approximately one of every three Honduran families … a family member has become a victim of street crime sometime during the past year. Major drug traffickers operate with impunity. A former security chief estimated that Mexican drug cartels have corrupted half the Honduran police force … zero-tolerance policies failed to bring crime under control.”
 * Democracy
 * Favoring undemocratic rule partly due to crime and the inability to control it
 * “Competing elites no longer trust democratic rules, and the mass population continues to be disillusioned with elected leaders' failure to address poverty, corruption, and crime.”
 * “… less committed to democratic institutions than most other Latin Americans, and are more willing to see their political leaders employ undemocratic means … More than a quarter-century of democratic politics has produced few tangible benefits for the Honduran public. The nation remains one of the poorest and most unequal countries in the region; more than two-thirds … below the poverty line …most corrupt and crime-ridden countries.”
 * “The year before the coup, only 24 percent of Hondurans expressed satisfaction with democracy, and only 44 percent said that they favored democracy over any other type of government.”
 * Ways and challenges of democratic consolidation
 * Honduras has struggled to consolidate democracy due to civilian political elites’ failure to gain widespread support for democratic institutions. The traditional political class is more focused on personal gain than improving the lives of the population. Despite the 2009 coup, only 55% of Hondurans express a preference for democracy. To gain durable support for democracy, elected officials must address poverty, inequality, and corruption. Failure to do so will likely lead to a decline in popular support for democratic politics.
 * “Stopping Crime and Violence in Latin America: A Look at Prevention from Cradle to Adulthood.” World Bank, World Bank Group, 18 Feb. 2019, https://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2018/05/17/fin-a-la-violencia-en-america-latina-una-mirada-a-la-prevencion-desde-la-infancia-hasta-la-edad-adulta .
 * This World Bank article provided me with a comprehensive summary of the state of crime in Honduras. Including details on the challenges and causes that are inherent in Hondruan society, this source provided details on the solutions and approaches that are being pursued by officials in Honduras.
 * Murder
 * “The magnitude of the problem is staggering, and it is stubbornly persistent. The region is home to only 8 percent of the world’s population, but 37 percent of the world’s homicides occur there. In 2013, 8 of 10 of the world’s most violent countries and 42 of the world’s 50 most violent cities, including the top 16, were in Latin America and the Caribbean. Every 15 minutes, at least four people in the region become victims of homicide.”
 * History
 * “The region’s history of elevated homicide rates and the latest uptick in violence contrast sharply with the significant social progress made over the last decade. Between 2003 and 2011, the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean have made important strides toward broader social equity, as reflected in sizable reductions in poverty (from 45 percent to 25 percent) and income inequality and rising numbers of people in the middle class. This contrast between increasing violence and major improvements in social equity highlights the complexity of the relationship between economic development and crime and violence.”
 * Crime Prevention
 * “Clear causality is important because better understanding of the underlying social and economic processes leads to well-designed, more effective policies.”
 * “World Report 2021: Rights Trends in Honduras.” Human Rights Watch, HWR, 13 Jan. 2021, https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2021/country-chapters/honduras .
 * This article focuses largely on the violation of human rights and the use of coercion and corruption that riddles the Honduran judicial system and media. Additionally, this HWR synopsis provides statistical data on police abuse, gangs, crimes from discriminatory bias (hate crimes), and the overall neglect of marginalized groups of people such as LGBTQ, disabled people, and children.
 * Effects of crime on migration
 * “Violent organized crime continues to disrupt Honduran society and push many people to leave the country. Journalists, environmental activists, lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) individuals, and people with disabilities are among the groups targeted for violence. The government relies heavily on the military for public security.”
 * Corruption
 * “Efforts to reform public-security institutions have stalled. Marred by corruption and abuse, the judiciary and police remain largely ineffective. In June 2020, a new criminal code came into effect. It included provisions that appeared aimed at reducing penalties for politicians linked to organized crime, by lowering sentences for corruption and related offenses. The new code also includes alternatives to detention for low-level crimes, including partial prison sentences and penalties that allow for conditional release. Impunity for human rights abuses, violent crime, and corruption remains the norm, even as the prison population has mushroomed.”
 * Gangs/Murder
 * “Gangs, particularly the Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13) and the 18th Street Gang (Barrio 18), are considered to be largely responsible for Honduras’ murder rate, and are infamous for extortion and drug peddling.”
 * “Women in Honduras face high levels of gender-based violence. The country has the second-highest rate of femicide—defined as the killing of a woman by a man because of her gender—in Latin America, the UN Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean reports. In 2013, Honduras reformed the penal code to recognize femicide as a crime.”
 * Crime Prevention/Corruption
 * “Historically, governments have responded with iron-fist security strategies to combat organized crime, enacting tougher legislation and increasing police presence and mass detentions. In 2018, the government created a special force to fight gangs (Fuerza Nacional Anti Maras y pandillas). Members include officers from the police, the military, and the Attorney’s General Office. Abuses by security forces, including alleged collusion with criminal organizations, and weak state institutions, have contributed to the persistence of gang violence.”
 * Coercion/Murder
 * “Judges continue to face interference, including political pressure, threats, and harassment, from the executive branch, private actors with connections to government, and organized crime. Prosecutors and whistleblowers have received death threats.”
 * “Individuals and state agents continue to threaten and attack journalists, press freedom groups report. At least 86 journalists were killed from 2001 through July 2020, the Honduran College of Journalists reported, and 92 percent of those killings remain unpunished.”
 * Education or the lack thereof
 * “Despite recent educational advances, around a third of children aged 3-17 did not attend school in 2018, according to the most recent survey by the National Statistics Institute.”
 * “Of 25,000 gang members in 2012, nearly a fifth were children, UNICEF estimated. Since 2012, the Honduran police have implemented a program sponsored by the US Department of State called Gang Resistance Education and Training (GREAT) which aims to discourage youth crime and gang recruitment. There is limited data on the effectiveness of the program in Honduras.”