User:A1morales/Urban planning

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Urban planning answers questions about how people will live, work and play in a given area and thus, guides orderly development in urban, suburban and rural areas. Although predominantly concerned with the planning of settlements and communities, urban planners are also responsible for planning the efficient transportation of goods, resources, people and waste; the distribution of basic necessities such as water and electricity; a sense of inclusion and opportunity for people of all kinds, culture and needs; economic growth or business development; improving health and conserving areas of natural environmental significance that actively contributes to reduction in CO2 emissions as well as protecting heritage structures and built environments. Urban planning is a dynamic field since the questions around how people live, work and play changes with time. These changes are constantly reflected in planning methodologies, zonal codes and policies making it a highly technical, political, social, economical and environmental field. Since most urban planning teams consist of highly educated individuals that work for city governments , recent debates focus on how to involve more community members in city planning processes.

Criticisms and debates in urban planning[edit]
The school of neoclassical economics argues that planning is unnecessary, or even harmful, because market efficiency allows for effective land use. A pluralist strain of political thinking argues in a similar vein that the government should not intrude in the political competition between different interest groups which decides how land is used. The traditional justification for urban planning has in response been that the planner does to the city what the engineer or architect does to the home, that is, make it more amenable to the needs and preferences of its inhabitants.

The widely adopted consensus-building model of planning, which seeks to accommodate different preferences within the community has been criticized for being based upon, rather than challenging, the power structures of the community. Instead, agonism has been proposed as a framework for urban planning decision-making.

'Another debate within the urban planning field is about who is included and excluded in the urban planning decision-making process. Most urban planning processes use a top-down approach which fails to include the residents of the places where urban planners and city officials are working. Sherry Arnstein's "ladder of citizen participation" is oftentimes used by urban planners and city governments to determine the degree of inclusivity or exclusivity of their urban planning. One main source of engagement between city officials and residents are city council meetings that are open to the residents and that welcome public comments. Additionally, there are some federal requirements for citizen participation in government-funded infrastructure projects.'

'Many urban planners and planning agencies rely on community input for their policies and zoning plans. How effective community engagement is can be determined by how members' voices are heard and implemented.'

Effective participation hold different key principles as outlined by Egger and Majeres (1998) :


 * "Inclusion – of all people,  or representatives of all groups who will be affected by the results of a decision or a process.
 * Equal Partnership – recognizing that every person has the skill, ability and initiative and has equal right to participate in the process regardless of their status.
 * Transparency – all participants must help to create a climate conducive to open community and building dialogue.
 * Sharing Power – authority and power must be balanced evenly between all stakeholders to avoid the domination of one party.
 * Sharing responsibility – similarly, all stakeholders have equal responsibility for decisions that are made, and each should have clear responsibilities within each process.
 * Empowerment – participants with special skills should be encouraged to take responsibility for tasks within their speciality, but should also encourage others to also be involved to promote mutual learning and empowerment.
 * Cooperation – cooperation is very important; sharing everybody’s strength and reduces everybody’s weaknesses."

Other ways to measure participation include the different degrees of participation .


 * "Functional or Passive Perspective – participation is seen as a means of accessing information from a variety of stakeholders so as to support more effective implementation of a project, policy or programs.
 * Rights-based or Proactive Perspective – view participation as a means of enabling and empowering less powerful groups in society to engage in decision-making and exercise their democratic rights".

The history of participatory urban planning
Participatory planning in the United States emerged during the 1960s and 1970s. 'At the same time, participatory planning began to enter the development field, with similar characteristics and agendas.  There are many notable urban planners and activists whose work facilitated and shaped participatory planning movements: Jane Jacobs and her work is one of the most significant contributions to participatory planning because of the influence it had across the entire United States. There has also been a recent move to engage youth in urban planning processes and education.'