User:AEK7/Civil Rights Act of 1960

= Initial Edits =
 * 1) First Paragraph- The Civil Rights Act of 1960 ( Pub.L.  86–449, 74 Stat. 89, enacted May 6, 1960) is a United States federal law that established federal inspection of local voter registration polls and introduced penalties for anyone who obstructed someone's attempt to register to vote. It was designed to deal with discriminatory laws and practices in the segregated South, by which blacks and Mexican Texans had been effectively disenfranchised since the late 19th and start of the 20th century. Its creation was largely influenced by the unsuccessful attempts at achieving similar anti-discriminatory objectives put forth in the Civil Rights Act of 1957, serving to eliminate certain loopholes left open within it. The intention was to more effectively enforce the provisions set forth within the 1957 act as well as add new civil rights provisions. It extended the life of the Civil Rights Commission, previously limited to two years, to oversee registration and voting practices. The act was signed into law by President Dwight D. Eisenhower.
 * 2) Background- Southern states continued to discriminate against African Americans in application of voter registration and electoral laws, in segregation of school and public facilities, and in employment despite the provisions that had been imposed by the 1957 Act. It was stated that "In a departure from the voting rights theme, the 1960 act imposed criminal penalties for obstruction of court orders, a provision designed to limit resistance to the Supreme Court's school Desegregation decisions" (Martin, Jr. & Sullivan).
 * 3) Legislative History- House of Representatives: The bill, H.R. 8601, began in the House of Representatives under jurisdiction of the House Judiciary Committee. The chairman of the committee, Congressman Emanuel Celler of New York (D), grandchild of Jewish immigrants from Germany, had a career of almost fifty years marked by his continuous efforts in battling discrimination through championing immigration and civil rights policy. (The bill was easily approved by the Judiciary Committee, but the Rules Committee attacked the Judiciary Committee to prevent the bill coming to the floor of the House of Representatives. The bill was introduced to the House on March 10, 1960. The "voter referees" plan was part of a House amendment to the original bill to substitute Representative Robert Kastenmeier's "enrollment officers" plan. After several amendments, the House of Representatives approved the bill on March 24, 1960 by a vote of 311–109. 179 Democrats and 132 Republicans voted Aye. 93 Democrats, 15 Republicans, and 1 Independent Democrat voted Nay. 2 Democrats and 1 Republican voted present. Senate: The Senate's Judiciary Committee also faced attempts to dislodge the bill. Southern  Democrats had long acted as a voting bloc to resist or reject legislation to enforce constitutional rights in the South and made it difficult for proponents of civil rights to add strengthening amendments. In January of 1960, Liberal Democrats pushed for a petition to discharge the consideration of the act . The most significant hurdle in passing the 1960 Act stemmed from active attempts by Southern Democrats to prevent its consideration and enactment. Ultimately, however, after amendments in the Senate, H.R. 8601 was approved by the Senate on April 8, 1960 by a vote of 71–18. The House of Representatives approved the Senate amendments on April 21, 1960 by a vote of 288-95[dubious – discuss] and the bill was signed into law by President Eisenhower on May 6, 1960. No Republican Senators voted against the Bill.

Introduction
The Civil Rights Act of 1960 ( Pub.L. 86–449, 74 Stat. 89, enacted May 6, 1960) is a United States federal law that established federal inspection of local voter registration polls and introduced penalties for anyone who obstructed someone's attempt to register to vote. It was designed to deal with discriminatory laws and practices in the segregated South, by which racial and ethnic minorities—specifically African Americans and Mexican-American Texans—had been effectively disenfranchised since the late 19th and start of the 20th century. The Civil Rights Act of 1960 was the fifth Civil Rights Act to be enacted in United States history. Over an 85-year period, it was preceded only by the Civil Rights Act of 1957, whose shortcomings largely influenced its creation. This law served to more effectively enforce what was set forth in the 1957 act through eliminating certain loopholes left within it, and to establish additional provisions. The act also extended the life of the Civil Rights Commission to oversee voting practices, which had previously been limited to two years. The Civil Rights Act of 1960 was signed into law by President Dwight D. Eisenhower on May 6, 1960.

Public Opinion
After the American Civil War ended in 1865, many of the ambitions intended through the conflict were not well-founded within legislation until decades later. During the 1950s, much of United States public opinion was still marked by a resistant attitude toward desegregation and racial equality, particularly in the South. Near the end of the decade, however, activists and proponents of the Civil Rights Movement had begun pressuring Congress to enact legislation which would more effectively protect the constitutional civil rights of African Americans.

Civil Rights Act of 1957
The first major piece of civil rights legislation passed by Congress was the Civil Rights Act of 1957. The Civil Rights Act of 1957 was signed into law by President Dwight D. Eisenhower on on September 9, 1957. After a span of 85 years, this was the first federal civil rights law enacted (the prior one being the Civil Rights Act of 1875). By 1957, only about 20% of African Americans were registered to vote, largely due to the active disenfranchisement they had faced.

While aiming to enforce the voting rights of African Americans set out in the Fifteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution, the 1957 act had several loopholes that allowed civil rights resistors to continue preventing minorities from exercising their right to vote. Southern states continued to discriminate against African Americans in application of voter registration and electoral laws, in segregation of school and public facilities, and in employment, despite the provisions that had been imposed by the law.

While the act's objectives were not adequately achieved, the ineffective outcomes of the Civil Rights Act of 1957 highlighted a need for improved civil rights legislation, which then was fulfilled by the creation of the 1960 act. The Civil Rights Act of 1960 was proposed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in his message to the 86th Congress on February 5, 1959, when he stated that "every individual regardless of his race, religion, or national origin is entitled to the equal protection of the laws."

President Dwight D. Eisenhower
Toward the end of his presidency, President Eisenhower publicly supported civil rights legislation. In his message to Congress, he proposed seven recommendations for the protection of civil rights, which are listed below.

Eisenhower's Mandate:


 * Strengthen the laws that would root out threats to obstruct court orders in school desegregation cases
 * Provide more investigative authority to the Federal Bureau of Investigation in crimes involving the destruction of schools/churches
 * Grant Attorney General power to investigate Federal election records
 * Provide temporary program for aid to agencies to assist changes necessary for school desegregation decisions
 * Authorize provision of education for children of the armed forces
 * Consider establishing a statutory Commission on Equal Job Opportunity Under Government Contracts (later mandated in the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to create the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission)
 * Extend the Civil Rights Commission an additional two years

State of the Union Address:

In the annual presidential State of the Union speech on January 7, 1960, Eisenhower spoke out about the necessity for advancement in civil rights legislation, referencing constitutionality as justification. He discussed how some citizens were still unfairly deprived of their right to vote, despite constitutional guarantees, and that protecting this right should be of utmost importance. With reference to the recommendations he made to Congress, he stated, "I trust that Congress will thus signal to the world that our Government is striving for equality under law for all our people."

Statement Upon Signing:

President Eisenhower also issued a statement upon signing the Civil Rights Act of 1960, stating that he felt the law would serve as a "historic step forward in the field of civil rights." Also within this statement, he emphasized the importance of certain provisions put forth by the law. He also discussed his predictions of what favorable outcomes would occur in result of these provisions:

Of Title II: "By authorizing the FBI to investigate certain bombings or attempted bombings of schools, churches and other structures, the Act will deter such heinous acts of lawlessness."

Of Title VI: "It holds great promise of making the Fifteenth Amendment of the Constitution fully meaningful."

= References = “Civil Rights Act of 1960.” (2000). In W. E. Martin, Jr. & P. Sullivan (Eds.), Civil Rights in the United States. Macmillan Reference USA. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/BT2338230668/OVIC?u=lom_oaklandu&sid=bookmark-OVIC&xid=d9c5c504

[https://alumni.columbia.edu/content/emanuel-celler-immigration-and-civil-rights-champion (footnote 1) Emanuel Celler: Immigration and Civil Rights Champion. Emanuel Celler: Immigration and Civil Rights Champion | Columbia Alumni Association. (n.d.). Retrieved October 23, 2021, from https://alumni.columbia.edu/content/emanuel-celler-immigration-and-civil-rights-champion.]

(footnote 2) By ANTHONY LEWIS Special to The New York Times. (1960, Jan 14). EISENHOWER COOL TO A RIGHTS PLAN: SAYS HE ISN'T SURA PROPOSAL FOR FEDERAL REGISTRARS IS CONSTITUTIONAL. New York Times (1923-) Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/eisenhower-cool-rights-plan/docview/115206657/se-2?accountid=12924