User:AH2960/sandbox

For Human Sexuality module
Plan to extend the menstrual cycle article by including the affect of fertility on mating, shopping and eating habits.

My focus will be on eating habits:

Eating behaviour
Females experience different eating habits at different stages of their menstrual cycle, with food intake being higher during the luteal phase than the follicular phase. Food intake increases by approximately 10% during the luteal phase compared to the follicular phase.

Various studies have shown that during the luteal phase woman consume more carbohydrates, proteins and fats and that 24-hour energy expenditure shows increases between 2.5-11.5%. The increasing intake during the luteal phase may be related to higher preferences for sweet and fatty foods, which occurs naturally and is enhanced during the luteal phases of the menstrual cycle. This is due to the higher metabolic demand during this phase. In particular, women tend to show a cravings for chocolate, with higher cravings during the luteal phase.

Females with premenstrual syndrome (PMS) report significant changes in appetite across the menstrual cycle more than non-sufferers of PMS, possibly due to their oversensitivity to changes in hormones. In women with PMS, food intake is higher in the luteal phase than follicular. The remaining symptoms of PMS, including mood changes and physical symptoms, also occur during the luteal phase. No difference for preference of food types has been found between PMS sufferers and non-sufferers.

The different levels of ovarian hormones at different stages of the cycle have been used to explain eating behaviour changes. Progesterone has been shown to promote fat storage, causing a higher intake of fatty foods during the luteal phase when progesterone levels are higher. Whereas with a high oestrogen level, dopamine is ineffective in converting to noradrenaline, a hormone which promotes eating, therefore decreasing appetite. In humans, the level of these ovarian hormones during the menstrual cycle have been found to influence binge eating.

There have been mixed findings in research into effect of oral contraception (OCs) on food intake. Some evidence has shown that caloric intake is higher in OC users than nonusers, whereas other research has shown no effect of OC use on food intake. It is theorised that the use of OCs should affect eating behaviour as they minimise or remove the variation in hormone levels.

It is theorised that the use of OCs should affect eating behaviour as they minimise or remove the fluctuations in hormone level. The neurotransmitter serotonin is also thought to play a role in food intake. Serotonin is responsible for inhibiting eating and controlling meal size, among other things, and is modulated in part by ovarian hormones.

A number of factors affect whether dieting will affect these menstrual processes: age, weight loss and the diet itself. First, younger women are likely to experience menstrual irregularities due to their diet. Second, menstrual abnormalities are more likely with more weight loss. For example, anovulatory cycles can occur as a result of adopting a restricted diet, as well as engaging in a high amount of exercise. Finally, the cycle is affected more by a vegetarian diet compared to a non-vegetarian diet.

Substance abuse

Studies investigating effects of the menstrual cycle on alcohol consumption have found mixed evidence. However, some evidence suggests that individuals consume more alcohol during the luteal stage, especially if these individuals are heavy drinkers or have a family history of alcohol abuse.

The level of substance abuse increases with PMS, mostly with addictive substances such as nicotine, tobacco and cocaine. One theory behind this suggests this higher level of substance abuse is due to decreased self-control as a result of the higher metabolic demands during the luteal phase.

Original version (no editing from others)
''Females experience different eating habits at different stages of their menstrual cycle, with food intake being higher during the luteal phase than the follicular phase. More precisely, women consume 500 more calories during pre-ovulation than post-ovulation. Females show a preference for sweeter foods during their luteal phase than at any other phase of the menstrual cycle. In particular, chocolate craving are related to the premenstrual phase. Similarly females also show a greater intake of carbohydrates during the luteal phase. ''

''Females with premenstrual syndrome (PMS) report significant changes in appetite across the menstrual cycle more than non-sufferers of PMS, possibly due to their oversensitivity to changes in hormones. In women with PMS, food intake is higher in the luteal phase than follicular. The remaining symptoms of PMS, including mood changes and physical symptoms, also occur during the luteal phase. No difference for preference of food types has been found between PMS sufferers and non-sufferers. ''

''The different levels of ovarian hormones at different stages of the cycle have been used to explain eating behaviour changes. In animals, food intake increases when oestrogen levels are low and progesterone levels are high, as in the luteal phase. Progesterone in particular promotes the storage of fat, explaining the increased food intake. Whereas with a high oestrogen level, dopamine is ineffective in converting to noradrenaline, a hormone which promotes eating, therefore decreasing appetite. In humans, the level of these ovarian hormones during the menstrual cycle have been found to influence binge eating. ''

''There have been mixed findings in research into effect of oral contraception (OCs) on food intake. Some evidence has shown that caloric intake is higher in OC users than nonusers, whereas other research has shown no effect of OC use on food intake. It is theorised that the use of OCs should affect eating behaviour as they minimise or remove the variation in hormone levels. ''

''The neurotransmitter serotonin is also thought to play a role in food intake. Serotonin is responsible for inhibiting eating and controlling meal size, among other things, and is modulated in part by ovarian hormones. Serotonin levels tend to be lowest during the premenstrual stages. Therefore, there will be less control over food intake during this stage.''

''An individual's diet can also have an effect on the menstrual cycle, with abnormal menstruation found in individuals on diets or who are restraining their eating in other ways. Restrained dieters have fewer ovulatory cycles and shorter luteal phases. Lower restraint is also linked with fewer menstrual symptoms and better mood. Low energy intake may affect hormone cycles, therefore producing these effects. For example, dieting affects the follicular phase through lowering levels of oestrogen or affects the luteal phase by limiting progesterone release. A number of factors affect whether dieting will affect these menstrual processes: age, weight loss and the diet itself. First, younger women are likely to experience menstrual irregularities due to their diet. Second, menstrual abnormalities are more likely with more weight loss. Finally, the cycle is affected more by a vegetarian diet compared to a non-vegetarian diet. ''

''Studies investigating alcohol consumption and the menstrual cycle in animals have found increases in alcohol consumption for monkeys and rats during the luteal phase. However mixed evidence has been found for humans. ''