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Canine Cognitive Syndrome (CCD) and nutrition:
Older dogs are more prone to Canine Cognitive Syndrome (CCD), which is similar to Alzheimer’s disease in humans. Many dogs over the age of seven independent of their breed may begin to lose cognitive functioning (even at younger ages in some large dog breeds). Cognitive diets help maintain healthy minds by maintaining memory and preventing memory loss, helping with cognitive psychomotor and retinal functions.

Added to the pre-existing section “Brain and Cognitive Health”: Omega-6 and Omega-3 Fatty Acids:
Eicosapentanoic Acid (Omega-6 Fatty Acids) and Docosahexanoic Acid (Omega-3 Fatty Acids) are important for cellular inflammation and for maintaining nerve cell structure and function, respectively. These are key components of maintaining good memory in older dogs. Also, although not linked to cognition, older dogs are more prone to osteoarthritis and joint pain and inflammation, the effects of which can be mitigated by added omega-3 fatty acids. DHA is also an important component of neuronal membrane phospholipids, and a lack of DHA can lead to neuronal breakdown and memory loss. Low omega 6 to omega 3 ratios have shown to improve cognition and memory. The EPA and DHA found in senior diets is commonly sourced from krill, fish, or algae oil, as well as flaxseed7. Marine ingredients and flaxseed consumption has also been associated with slower cognitive decline11.

Added under the "Brain and Cognitive Health" section: L-Arginine:
L-Arginine is especially important in older dogs as it has been shown to be crucial for neural transmission and brain function, because it is oxidized to nitric oxide gas in the brain, and this is used as a chemical messenger10. L-Arginine is also important for preventing brain edema and improving blood flow to the brain, increasing neuronal function. As dogs get older, nervous tissue and the cardiovascular system naturally degrade from age, so boosting blood flow is important for maintaining proper functioning of the tissues relaying cognitive information to the body and brain.

Added under the "Brain and Cognitive Health" section: Medium-Chain Triglycerides:
Medium-Chain Triglycerides are a readily-available form of energy in the form of ketones, and have been shown to improve brain functioning in older dogs9.

Free radical formation:
Aging dogs are susceptible to the formation of free radicals, which is associated with degeneration of neural functions as well as causing nerve damage diseases6. Excessive oxidation causing issues with tissue damage is limited by including an appropriate amount of antioxidants in the aging dog’s diet1.

Folic Acid:
Folic Acid (folate, Vitamin B9)  is important to prevent demyelination in the nerve bodies across the body. Its inclusion in diets may help with overall neural functions12. Folic acid plays an important role in the development of the myelin sheath, because it influences desaturation and chain elongation of polyunsaturated fats which comprise the myelin sheath. Folate deficient animals will have a very low n-6:n-3 ratio, which influences the development of brain matter and nerves in rats, and probably does so similarly in dogs, leading to poorer cognitive abilities5.

Pyridoxine:
Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6) is important in maintaining normal levels of homocysteine, which is linked with Alzheimer’s disease in humans and Canine Dysfunction Syndrome in dogs8. Alzheimer’s disease in humans is linked with elevated homocysteine levels, which is commonly caused by a deficiency in vitamins B2, B6, and B9 (Folate)3. High plasma levels of homocysteine lead to a higher incidence of Alzheimer’s disease and Dementia in humans13. B-vitamin supplementation also helps slow down the breakdown of grey matter related to aging, which helps with maintaining cognitive functions. Additionally, homocysteine is linked with the atrophy of brain cells, and can be reduced by supplementing B vitamins, which metabolize circulating homocysteine levels, thus decreasing its plasma concentration4.

Choline Chloride:
Choline chloride is part of the B-complex vitamins and helps form acetylcholine which is important for neurotransmission and cognitive functioning, but there is no research stating that choline chloride on its own can prevent cognitive decline as more studies are needed2. Choline Chloride is a constituent of lecithin, found in plant materials.