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The Feminine Brigades of Saint Joan of Arc (Spanish (Links to an external site.) : Las Brigadas Femeninas de Santa Juana de Arco), or Guerrilleras de Cristo (women-soldiers of Christ) was a secret military society for women. It was founded by Maria Ernestina Gollaz Gallardo (alias Jefa Generala Celia Gomez) and her husband Luis Flores Gonzalez on the 21st of June 1927, outside of Guadalajara, at the shrine of Virgen of Zapopan (Links to an external site.), Jalisco (Links to an external site.), Mexico (Links to an external site.). It was made up mainly of Catholic women that organized secretly to support the Mexican Cristero War (Links to an external site.)

The group of women was involved with Unión Popular, an organization formed by prominent Catholic and lawyer, Anacleto Gonzalez Flores, to motivate people to participate in Catholic activism. The brigades started out with only 17 women, but turned rapidly into 135 women members within days and even reached 800 in Guadalajara by 1925. At one point, the brigade held 56 squadrons, each brigade with 750 women, totaling 25,000 women militants, most active in Jalisco, Guadalajara (Links to an external site.) and Mexico City(Links to an external site.).

The society was kept secret in a time when the government began restricting any public or general religious practice by the Catholic church's followers in Mexico. The women carried out the tasks priests in hiding and persecution could not. The group was made up primarily of women in a time when it was seen that they could be of great help to educate within the family or “the home” and serve as a helping hand for spreading religious and social support for the Cristeros, while not becoming involved politically.

Many of the women were also involved in the Union de Damas Catolicas de Mexico (Union of Mexican Catholic Ladies), founded by Jesuit Carlos Heredia) which was the main social group within the sphere of the Feminine Brigades involved in the Cristero War. They served by spreading social support (especially to women) for the Cristeros through methods such as propaganda as well as physical support such as protests or transfer of necessary resources to Cristeros.

While feminism (specifically, political involvement) was pronounced “irreligious” by the Catholic church, the women still participated as aids for social change in the Cristero War and took on leadership roles to serve in the Cristero War. They provided aid that, if had not been available may have left the Cristeros without much of the social and physical support they had gained.

Key Figures
Maria Ernestina Gollaz Gallardo (alias Jefa Generala Celia Gomez) and her husband Luis Flores Gonzalez both founded the Feminine Brigades. Luis fought and with his help, Maria led the brigades and was comfortable holding government officials captive if necessary. Gollaz lived in silence after the war, her husband died in battle, and she took her secrets of the Feminine Brigades to death.

Anacleto Gonzalez Flores sent women such as Carmen Macias, a leading general of the Feminine Brigades who was also part of the Union Popular, to send the President Calles letters explaining their concerns on enforcing Article 130 of the Mexican Constitution, which when rejected led them to the decision of taking up arms in the Cristero War. Anacleto Gonzalez Flores created the Union Popular in the 1920’s, feeling there was a need for Catholic activism; it disregarded age and class.

Jesuit Sociologist Father Alfredo Mendez Medina worked with Sofia del Valle in 1922 to form groups and conferences of women similar to ones he was organizing of working men to spread teachings on the church and social action. Sofia del Valle helped organize these groups of religious instruction especially for women who were factory and office workers.

Gregorio Aguilar, followed by Father Rafael Davila Vilchis, were the archbishops who were chosen to be the male Catholic supervisors of the Feminine Brigades. This was after they changed their name from the Feminine Brigades to the Feminine Brigades of Saint Joan of Arc when they were threatened with excommunication by the archbishops if thehy kept running independently, without supervision.

Amparo Morfín de Gonzalez Luna was a longtime Catholic activist who raised money for charities, to support seminars and vocations, teach catechism, and fund Catholic schools and libraries. She housed 14 Jesuits, Father Julio Davila and a world-renowned French mathematician-priest.

In 1923, Archbichop Jose Mora y del Rio appointed Madre Conchita (Maria Concepcion Acevedo y de la Llata) as an abbess of Capuchins of Trapan (a group of sisters); she gave mass and spiritual advice.

In 1928 the sisters were arrested, the priest was fined $500, and the sisters were ordered to disband. They went from house to house avoiding arrest. Rumors of the sisters taking communion to prisoners and suspicious people visiting them caused the archbishop to have them move to 60 Zaragoza Street where no one was allowed to visit them except the chaplain. Juan Jose Toral, who worked for the government, visited. He was an introverted mystic and was troubled by the death of Father Pro who knew Madre Conchita and was executed for allegedly suggesting the assassination of the then President Obregón. Madre Conchita talked with Toral about his sufferings and "religious problem" but while doing this said “What I do know is that for the thing to be settled it is indispensable that Obregón, Calles and Patriarch Perez die”. Toral was implicated by these comments once the government got word of them and he was executed. Madre Conchita was put on trial (was not executed with Toral because there was a law prohibiting the killing women). She asked for permission to marry Carlos Balda, a friend and frequent convent visitor, to avoid the prospect she faced of being sent to Islas Marías in 1934, where she would’ve been the only woman among the imprisoned at the time.

Many people admired Madre Conchita and found her innocent. Sofia del Valle thought she was a good nun but seemed unsettled by a comment she made one time about two wax figures, a tarantula ad scorpion saying they were like Obregon and Calles who would "kill you if you didn’t kill them". Sofia del Valle answered that “They are souls and this is not my way of prayer.” Many women like Conchita asked for permission to stay in the country to help the Cristeros during the war, turning their homes into chapels and providing for the spiritual needs of all Catholics.

La Liga (La Liga Nacional Defensora de la Libertad Religiosa or the National League of Defense of Religious Freedom) was an organization associated with the Feminine Brigades, open to all Mexican Catholics, including women and young people to defend religious freedom for Catholics and oppose/eradicate legislation in the Constitution that they found unfair. Its leaders offered to coordinate the war effort, even though they didn’t start it. In February 1925, las Damas (UDCM) had officially become one of the four main working branches of La Liga. Clara Arce, representative of the UDCM, sent pamphlets throughout Mexico regions to explain la Liga’s work. They received a mostly favorable response, with some unfavorable ones as well. In March 20, 1925 a newspaper published la Liga’s mission statement to fight the government for certain religious freedoms. Elena Lascuraín, UDC founder-president, disapproved because it was too “political” and the Damas weren’t supposed to get involved in politics, but rather just work with the Liga to get back religious liberties and educate their children and those of poor Mexican families according to their “Catholic conscious”.

Recruitment, Vows and Duties
Women from urban zones purchased arms and other resources. Women mostly in the Union de Empleadas Catolicas (Union of Employed Catholic Women), young, single, between 15 and 25 years old were señoras. Many of the feminine brigades were working class, young women from the city. Soon more women from rural regions joined too, and it was easier for them to navigate the areas where Cristeros were, facilitating munition delivery.

Recruitment began in Catholic women's colleges, but quickly spread to among the indigenous population and across all social classes.

The women took a vow of faith/absolute secrecy, in front of a crucifix promising to die rather than betray the secrets and the cause of the Cristeros, even if tortured or promised the most riches. Keep record of their work, confess no detail, not even to family. There is a lack of evidence to support that the vow was ever broken. The women in the brigades sent President Calles letters and petitions explaining their concerns on Article 130 of the Mexican Constitution. They also protested, carried out boycotts (boycotted businesses that discriminated against its employees based on religion) and publicly criticized government action, including the expelling of priests. Additionally, the women spread teachings on the church (which included educating their children and teaching catechism). One duty was to spread propaganda with pamphlets that they sent throughout Mexico regions explaining la Liga’s work; La Dama Catolica was a newspaper they published which also served as propaganda and a way to recruit women to the cause of the Cristeros.

In general, the women also provided moral strength and encouragement for battlefield men, motivating the men in their families to follow and defend their beliefs, even if they worried about their well-being. Aside from this, an important duty Secure funds(for arms, resources, for Cristeros, be it bail, unemployed families, food, clothes, etc), food, info, orders in bags books, food (staff soup kitchens, breakfast programs for kids taught included), etc, shelter, nurse wounded, provide medical supplies and surgery, sometimes on battlefield

“Señoras” were the women associated with the brigades that were part of the UDCM (Union de Damas Catolicas de Mexico). They were usually the married, city-residing, middle and upper class who could afford resources. They would offer religious teaching and childcare to working women and their families, donate food and clothes to charities and needy, support seminars and vocations, and open Catholic schools and libraries. All the women marched in protests but only señoras placed demands to the government ministry; señoras were the main “mouthpiece” for women of the Cristero cause.

“Religiosas” had to be less public than the señoras, going underground provide place for worship, sanctuaries for Blessed Sacrament, hiding it, making small altars for/organizing mass, and hiding wounded and fleeing Cristeros or families whose fathers died in war. They turned their homes into asylum, propaganda, and meeting centers for priests to minister secretly, to hold mass, bless marriages, officiate funerals, baptisms, and other events for communion or for sacraments. Aside from this, they provided food, clothing, shelter, they provided for mass, offered spiritual advice and religious devotions for Cristeros. The penalty for being discovered was jail time and facing trial. When discovered, the religiosas were searched aggressively, pillaged, stolen from by government troops. The officials found items from blessed marriages, coffins with bodies from funerals, baptism papers and others for communion and other sacraments.

The religiosas were also responsible for a spy communication system (via mail, telegraph, in person, silk in shoe soles between units, etc) warning Cristeros about soldiers’ movements. The women also nursed, performed surgery, provided medical equipment, were directly involved in the Feminine Brigades. They often moved frequently to avoid government troops.

The “jovenes” were usually young woman active revolutionaries, who included some “religiosas” that were sometimes on the battle field with the Cristeros.

Complicated Logistics Network
As mentioned, the women bought and delivered (sometimes manufactured) arms and munition, carried in chalecos that could hold 500-700 cartouches when traveling by train when not in rural areas (which was easier for delivering arms). These were distributed though complex supply routes. The brigade women also made homemade explosives and grenades out of jelly tins in secret workshops in federal factories.

Within the complex routes were communication routes where the women delivered messages to Cristeros from their families, delivered and made food for them and other things they may have needed while in prison.

The women associated with the brigades who were in the UDCM donated clothes to the poor, made visits to hospitals, orphanages, and prisons, provided jobs and schooling, especially religious instruction to humble classes and factory and office worker women and their kids. They also gave night classes for lower wage traditional“female” job skills such as sewing, hairstyling or housekeeping. They also discouraged immoral film and dance like the tango and provocative fashion. Additionally, they formed labor unions for better working conditions, including having a chair for sitting on the job when the women became exhausted.

30 year olds usually led the less risky missions; they couldn’t stay in one place to long or use their real name, which they did to avoid being caught.

After the war, the women returned to health, education, welfare sectors, and family only; they agreed to continue teaching catechism, consoling the sick, visiting hospitals, and overall strengthening Christian family.

When delivering arms or munition, the women, including Madre Rosita, carried special vests called chalecos to hide the resources. Many Catholic women wore black shawls to show their support for the Cristeros.

Milestones/Events
Damas collected funds, spread propaganda, and protested the government's action. Protests included that of government expelling priests since the Constitution guaranteed “exercise of all cults” and there weren’t enough priests to do so. Even months after when the Pope’s representative Jorge Jose Caruana was expelled, they protested but were unanswered.

The Feminine Brigades bought, delivered arms and munition (gunpowder, cartouches, etc) between 1927 and '29 bc la Liga had trouble doing this without too many arrests or deaths.

Two women were discovered 1929 in Sahuayo for having the special vests with munition on. After this, the government slowly started becomig aware of their presence and the magnitude of their role in the Cristero war.

Even after the religious leader running a religious school being closed by the government fled, it continued to run with Doña Amada Diaz del Torre becomig the new director of a religious school that had been closed (one of many) down by the government in response to a misunderstanding about the Archbishop opposing anti-clerical laws being enforced (forcing many students to find housing elsewhere, including private homes and US embassy. As a result, mothers sent a telegram to Secretary of Government asking for religious equality rights and the Damas of Guadalajara protested the school (Visitation School) closing, and sent petitions and letters but neither were heard by Calles.

When not in hostilities, the Feminine Brigades “turned their energy to Catholic social action under the direct supervision of Archbishop Pascual Díaz” Minister of the Interior Adalberto Tejeda said to Sagrada Familia Church that if a similar case happened, he’d use firehoses on women, machine guns on men. In this Visitation school in Coyoacán, 48 nuns refused to give up habits. The women used their influence as mothers teaching the next generations as a threats against polio imllic’s. Elena lascurain gave critters asylum. In the Sagrada Familia Church event and protest, two women were killed at protest, 16 wounded. In March 1926, when Catholic schools were closed to carry out the Calles Law prohibiting public Catholic religious practice and instruction, the Damas of Guadalajara rallied to support a petition signed by hundreds of mothers sent to the secretary of government as a telegram. The government sent troops to close Church of the Sacred Family in Colonia Roma because they thought foreign priests were working there. The Damas wrote a letter to Calles and physically protested government troops in front of Sacred Family Church. UDC members and Servants of St. Zita blocked the entrance, refusing to move when the soldiers demanded. They were shot down with waterholes and got up, throwing rocks at soldiers, until the men charged them away. A Feminine Brigade army of 5000 women went to governor’s secretary and asked to meet Colonel Tejada. They were denied and a similar event happened to them, with the Police Inspector General Roberto Cruz lashing his whip at some of the women.

The señoras issued the statement “Men of the whole Republic, there are your models. Go hide your shame in the dark caverns of our forests.” Many Mexicans seemed shocked at the use of force.

Women were not permitted in politics but could have moral influence, trying to help morally in society with values (guiding or educating the people they believed were losing morals) and charity, education, health, etc. They threatened the government with their educating power they had as mothers. The downturn of the economy limited how much the women could donate but they tried to donate services and staff soup kitchens. They set up schools in factories El Buen Toro (cigarettes) and Talleres Britania (shirts), taught academics and Catholic faith. Both factories fired the mothers whose children were being educated, under pressure by gov-affiliated unions. So, they boycotted those places.

The Feminine Brigades joined with la Liga but they still worked independently and supported Enrique Gorostieta who questioned la Liga’s ability to direct guerrilla war from Mexico City. Luis Beltran y Mendoza, was a Liga representative who criticized the Feminine Brigades, saying it was unnatural and dangerous to have women following military orders, since they would possibly show favoritism. Archbishop Orozco y Jimenez threatened to excommunicate the women if they kept running autonomously without religious male church leaders, they changed their name to add Saint Joan of Arc, Gregorio Aguilar then Fr Rafael Davila Vilchis were added to be the leaders by archbishop.After the rebellion, many of the women married and stayed home.

On July 3rd the “Ley Calles” or Calles Law was announced to be enforced officially, alarming the Knights of Columbus and the Asociacion Catolica de Juventud Mexicana (Catholic Association of Mexican Youth). The Damas stated that they would side with bishops no matter what occurred. Sra. Concepcion Lacsurain, Sra. Refugio Goribar de Cortina, and Sra.Juana Pimental de Labat were detained by the chief of police because of their promise to help la Liga with their mission in opposing the new legislature restricting Catholic religious practice.

The Damas of Guadalajara printed propaganda, under Governor Luna Gonzalez’s balcony office, promoting a boycott against the government. The government didn’t know about this and neither did Gonzalez, whose wife hid priests being who were being searched for without him knowing.

In the Plaza of San Miguel Allende, Guanajuato, women passing out propaganda were detained by chief of military operations, and were threatened with rape by the soldiers if they kept refusing to give the propaganda, 1000 armed soldiers waiting outside. The Damas requested their release, the crowd yelled “Death to the government and to Calles!”, and the soldiers released the women.

Near Doblado Theater, the ACJM (Association Catolica de Juventus Mexicana or Catholic Association of Mexican Youth) were promoting the boycott of an afternoon show. No one bought tickets, the mayor reprimanded the women and told them to go home but the women’s leader Salvador Vargas was detained. A hostile crowd of people cried and threatened to release Vargas by force so Vargas was released.

Carmen Torres Quesada wrote a letter to her cousin that after the Calles Law was enforced, everything seemed to be dull and people seemed to be sad, places of diversion were closed, including the places boycotted. After the boycotts were called off by bishops in response to Catholic complaints, Damas kept spreading propaganda against the government in processions throughout Mexico but the uprisings turned into wars so Damas were limited to collecting funds to free prisoners used for meal supply and the unemployed.

Doña Luz Noriega de Reguer’s house served as a Cristeros’ asylum and propaganda/local meeting center; she helped la Liga spread propaganda.

Other women housed priests so they could minister secretly. Sra Elena Lascuraín, Sra. Arce, Sra. Pitman de Labarthe (last two, active Damas), and Amparo Morfín housed Cristero soldiers and religious men including Heriberto Navarrete (Lascuraín housed him), 14 Jesuits (Morfín housed them), and Fr Julio Dávila and world renowned French mathematician-priest (Morfín housed them). They were never questioned by police of this and their houses served as a places for mass, marriages, and funerals.

In 1927, the Union of Damas Catolicas (Catholicas Ladies) disassociated themselves from the rebellion when it became a war because it had become too political. Señoras still helped independently of the UDC by distributing propaganda, and housing priests and places of worship.

Las religiosas didn’t become directly involved in war either but did have to go underground. In February 1926, religious schools were being closed. Madre Sample was a North American sister who had to evacuate the Visitation School in Mexico City. Students emptied building carrying mattresses and bookcases. 49 schools closed within a few days and 157 evacuated in the Federal District within a month. The sisters didn’t want to submit and met with archbishops to see what they should do. The sisters published a mission statement that they were willing to fight until their death for reform of the Constitution or not, based on however the bishops willed. The bishops agreed with their mission statement.

In Guadalajara, “Madre Anna” remembers her and her sisters having to remove their habits and disguise themselves in theater clothing to avoid being discovered by government-sent men. The bishops told them to finish school quick and leave the country. Some religious were raped by soldiers. Madre Anna and the 40 women found asylum in Laredo, Texas, taught Mexican children there and in Louisiana then went back to Mexico in 1931, when attacks on Church got worse and Madre Anna said they suffered but “enthusiastically for Christ”.

Sor Maria Esperanza sent a letter to Calles, recalling nuns’ good works (in hospitals, schools, elderly homes), asking him to repeal the Calles Law but he did not respond to it. Sisters were encouraged by some superiors in Rome to leave Mexico but U.S. bishops advised them not to because of Great Depression and language barriers for teaching. Many religiosas found refuge with family and friends because it was dangerous to live as group. In their homes, they hid the Blessed Sacrament behind crockery and behind books on shelves in the day, and prayed at night.

Madre María del Carmen Gutierrez was a Brigada Sanitaria, a branch of the Feminine Brigades. In San Miguel, she was surprised by federal troops; the first time she hid the wounded successfully, the second time she had to flee and all her patients were killed by federal troops. She then taught the Christian doctrine to children in San Jose de la Presa but had to flee when a first communion celebration they were having was attacked by federal troops. She fled to nurse the wounded again until federal troops attacked them again and she left country in July 1929, later returning to Guadalajara to continue nursing. Petra Muñoz & Vicenta García, Sisters of Charity, also nursed wounded Cristero soldiers and couldn’t build fire because it could compromise their location to federal troops. Therefore, they lived on a diet of maize and wheat. They didn't have water so they drank animal urine and liquid from uncultivated plants.

Madre Rosita was also in Feminine Brigades, and as a member, carried munitions and equipment to soldiers in field in special vests. Her companions were caught and sent to Islas Marías, she huddled in her seat and wasn’t caught. Some sisters, including one of fifteen novices Madre Espinosa, didn’t know much except that there was government opposition; they didn’t face this directly since they stayed within the convent. Other religiosas were beaten and some died of illness and other conditions, when discovered. Madre Remedios of Jalisco (who was ill) and her sisters were evacuated by soldiers, beaten, and Madre Remedios died soon after. Madre Rosa was take prisoner with her sisters, was isolated, and, starving, fell ill and died April 3rd. Religiosas in Mexico held fear of rape. One of these women was Ester Torres Quesada. Soldiers attacked her convent, raped her sisters, and her and a friend escaped and fled to Cuba.

Refugio Goribar de Crotina, active propagandist and UDC leader said they’d keep teaching catechism, consoling the sick, visiting hospitals but focus on strengthening the Christian family. In response to Pius XI emphasis on this, she said that “All other work of women is useless”, and that they would obey what Church said.

The archbishop of Guadalajara offered to destroy documents to protect the identities of the women who survived after 1929 when the war ended. Historian Jean Meyer claims they controlled 54 towns of Jalisco, Colima, Durango, Nayarit, and San Luis Potosi.

Enrique Gorostieta y Valarde, the leader of the National Defense League for Religious Liberty (Liga Nacional Defensora de la Libertad Religiosa - LNDLR), the main coordinating Cristero group, had to work on making relations with the Feminine Brigades less tense. By 1928, the Brigades had gotten larger and more efficient and had become an important part of the Cristero effort. The Brigades at this point obeyed the LNDLR leadership only occasionally. The feud between the Brigades and the LNDLR resulted in a "serious decrease in the flow of ammunition." Eventually, the friction was resolved and the Brigades increased the supply of ammunition to the field of soldiers.

Once the war started ending, the Feminine Brigades dissolved.

Social Effects and Controversy
The UDCM (Union de Damas Catolicas Mexicanas or Union of Mexican Catholic Ladies) published La Dama Catolica to recruit more women to the cause. Its editor claimed that, even though the women did this, their place was still “in the home” teaching children Christian values, not in politics but that their help with social activities to help with the cause would be helpful, which they followed by having a national assembly and through involvement with social and religious groups like Asociacion Catolica de Juventud Mexicana and la Liga. La Semana Social called feminism “irreligious”.

in 1919, a Catholic worker’s organization called La Semana Social stated that feminism in the form of social activism and mainly politics was irreligious and that women should be restricted to teaching about Catholicism within traditional roles. For saying that they would carry out the mission of restoring their religious practice and opposing the enforced Article 130, the women often faced “fines, confiscation of property, arrests, and imprisonment” in unhealthy conditions.

Archbishop Jose Mora y del Rio may have founded the UDCM or appointed Jesuit Carlos Heredia to. The UDCM focused on helping the poor and working class through education (while remaining within the Church-accepted realm of charity, children, the home). Protestant and liberal critics accused the church of making women into “things” simply for husbands’ sexual interest, to which the UDCM responded by calling women to  stop being “beautiful animals” and actually help socially; they saw it as “reasonable feminism”.

Father Medina told the women they couldn’t be indifferent or retain wealthy egoism but the señoras rewarded themselves as “generous” and believed their “altruism” would soften the poor’s attitude towards the rich. Historians have said that UDCM could be seen as clergy’s puppet organization but others say that Father Leopoldo Icaza couldn’t oversee all 15 regional sections. Some Catholic groups didn’t find it proper for women to be so socially involved in the war.

Some Catholic groups didn’t find it proper for women to be so socially involved in the war. Leobardo Fernandez and Roman Martinez Silva sent details to the Vatican, which created insecurities and inner divisions on the side supporting the Cristeros, which left them more vulnerable to government attack. In June 1929, General Tesia Richaud (Luz Laraza de Uribe) was one of the women detained, captured, beaten, and tortured, who died saying the slogan of the Cristeros "Viva Cristo Rey" or "Long Live Christ the King", asking Christ to save her.

Even though the flow of resources by the women helped, the Cristero army never had enough ammunition to win “a decisive victory”. They usually had to disengage to avoid being fatally injured in battle.