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Introduction
Panopticism, as a metaphorical concept introduced by Michel Foucault, refers to the societal condition where individuals are constantly observed and controlled, often without their direct knowledge. This form of surveillance, both physical and metaphorical, is prevalent in various societies, shaping interactions and power dynamics. In Pakistan, the notion of panopticism manifests distinctly across different domains such as gender expression, media freedom and privacy norms, influenced by cultural, religious and political factors.

Overview of Media Surveillance in Pakistan
In Pakistan, the media operates under intense scrutiny and surveillance, both from governmental bodies and various non-state actors. This surveillance is not only a reflection of the competitive authoritarian regime but also a systemic approach to control and influence the media landscape. Sadia Jamil's comprehensive 2021 study highlights the intricate dynamics of media surveillance, emphasizing the pervasive sense of vulnerability among journalists regardless of their media platform or specialization.

State Surveillance Mechanisms
The state employs a range of mechanisms to monitor and control not only journalists but also other vulnerable communities such as the Ahmadiyya. The Prevention of Electronic Crimes Act (PECA) of 2016 and the Investigation for Fair Trial Act of 2013 are two significant legislative tools that enable the government to perform surveillance under the pretext of national security. These laws provide the government with the authority to oversee digital communications comprehensively, affecting journalists' ability to conduct investigative reporting without fear of reprisal. Under these acts, anything deemed objectionable by the state can lead to censorship or legal consequences for the journalists involved.

For the Ahmadiyya community, these laws have been weaponized to further marginalize and persecute them, as evidenced in the case of Abdul Shakoor, an 82-year-old Ahmadi who managed a bookshop and optician store in Rabwah. Charged under both the Anti-Terrorism Act and blasphemy laws, Shakoor was sentenced to a total of eight years in prison, underscoring a clear misuse of state's power under PECA.

Impact on Journalistic Practice
The constant surveillance has profound implications for journalistic practices in Pakistan. Journalists find themselves engaging in self-censorship to avoid confrontations with the state. This includes altering or omitting sensitive information that could be critical of governmental policies or that might invite scrutiny from security agencies. The surveillance extends beyond the digital realm, with physical tracking and monitoring of journalistic activities being commonplace. This omnipresent surveillance results in a significant reduction in the scope of investigative journalism, as reporters are aware that their communications, movements and interactions are potentially being monitored.

Digital Surveillance and Social Media
With the advent of digital media, surveillance has also adapted to encompass social media platforms. Journalists in Pakistan report that their social media accounts are routinely monitored, and content that is critical of the government can lead to direct repercussions, including harassment or legal challenges. The Digital Rights Foundation has voiced concerns about the PECA law, arguing that it grants excessively broad powers to the government to regulate online content, which has led to an environment where digital expressions of dissent are swiftly clamped down upon.

Responses and Resistance
Despite the challenging environment, there are pockets of resistance within the media community. Journalists and media advocacy groups continue to challenge overreaching surveillance laws and practices, seeking to protect journalistic freedoms and promote transparency. International attention and pressure have occasionally led to small-scale reforms, but the general trajectory remains one of stringent control and surveillance by the state.

This extensive surveillance network fundamentally alters the landscape of journalism in Pakistan, imposing a panoptic mechanism that seeks to maintain control over the narrative and limit the media's ability to function as an independent entity within society.

Cultural and Technological Context of Surveillance
In Pakistan, the concept of privacy is intricately linked with cultural and social norms which often prioritize collective security over individual privacy rights. This perspective is shaped by a variety of factors, including religious beliefs, national security concerns and technological infrastructure. As noted by Muhammad Bilal, the technological lag in Pakistan compared to other countries means that surveillance often relies more on manpower than on digital means. However, the growing use of CCTV systems in public spaces such as airports, shopping malls and public squares reflects a gradual shift towards more technologically driven surveillance methods.

Impact on Public Behavior and Social Norms
The pervasive nature of surveillance in public spaces has significant implications for how individuals navigate their daily lives. The awareness of being constantly monitored tends to alter public behavior, often leading people to self-regulate their actions in public areas. This phenomenon can lead to what Foucault described as a "chilling effect," where individuals internalize the observer's gaze, adjusting their behavior to conform to perceived norms and expectations.

Firstly, historical surveillance laws like the Telegraph Act of 1885 initially gave the government powers to intercept messages for public safety or during emergencies. More contemporary regulations like the Pakistan Telecommunication (Re-organisation) Act, 1996, and the Prevention of Electronic Crimes Act, 2016, have extended these powers, enabling authorities to intercept communications with judicial warrants and even block internet content. These acts, alongside others such as the Investigation for Fair Trial Act, 2013, grant law enforcement broad capabilities to monitor and intercept communications under the guise of preventing terrorism and ensuring national security​​.

Despite these provisions, there have been significant controversies and legal challenges, such as the case involving Justice Qazi Faez Isa, where the legality of surveillance was questioned in relation to privacy rights under the Constitution of Pakistan ​​.

Moreover, reports indicate that surveillance technologies are not only used for security purposes but can also be used to monitor and sometimes suppress political dissent and civil society activities. This is particularly concerning in regions with intense political conflict or where civil rights activism is prominent. For instance, activists in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa have reported being under surveillance, with their activities being labeled as anti-state​ (GISWatch)​.

Background
Transgender individuals in Pakistan, particularly the Khawaja Sara and Hijra communities in Peshawar, face significant societal surveillance and control, largely due to the entrenched cis-heteropatriarchal norms. Studies, such as the one conducted by Alamgir in 2024, highlight the pervasive surveillance within familial environments where trans identities are seen as a dishonor, leading to discrimination and exclusion.

Methods and Findings
Qualitative methodologies reveal the neo-panoptic control exerted over young transgender individuals, compelling many to abandon their homes due to the lack of acceptance and the high level of scrutiny they face. This surveillance restricts their access to essential services and forces them into guru-cheela houses for communal living and protection. Despite these adversities, the resilience and resistance shown by these communities challenge the deeply ingrained parental and societal control.