User:Akemi Kawano/Sexual assault/Bibliography

Social Constructive Theories on SA Among SGM Populations
The absence of inclusive conversations about sexual violence among SGM populations ignores key contextual factors. Unlike heterosexual relationships, this form of violence occurs within the context of a misogynous, homophobic and transphobic world. Prejudice and discrimination experienced by SGM populations contribute to their experience of minority stress. Minority stress posits that prejudice and discrimination against SGM populations cause and maintain health disparities. SGM are less likely than heterosexual victims to find formal refuge from sexual violence and receive appropriate care due to historical biases in legislation and domestic violence shelters tailoring their services towards cisgender and heterosexual victims and lack. Despite the influence of group coalitions led by women of color, disabled women, and transgender women survivors in activism against sexual assault, the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) of 1994 centered a monolithic approach to supporting survivors, primarily who were White heterosexual cisgender women, and took a carceral approach to funding DV shelters (i.e., required survivors to report abusers to law enforecement in order to recieve shelter). A systemic review stated that in 2011, 61% of SGM reported being turned away by domestic violence (DV) shelters. Although in 2013 the Violence Against Women Act explicitly barred discrimination on basis of race, gender, sexual orientation, and disability, no follow up research has been done to assess the compliance of DV shelters. The VAWA became so linked to law enforcement involvement, it did not match the approach to accountability and care desired by survivors holding marginalized intersectional identities whom have mistrust of law enforcement. Additionally, older research on DV shelters have demonstrated a lack of competence and attunement to servicing SGM survivors, which often perpetuated harm towards these communities. Systemic erasure of SGM denies victims services that take into account their unique experiences with interpersonal and systemic harm and adds to their minority stress. Minority stress also relates to intersectionality. The theory of intersectionality explores how varied identities held by an individual (i.e., race, SES, gender identity, sexual orientation, ect.) may interact with one another within a given social and political context. The nature of the sexual assault is shaped by the way intersecting identities interact with their social context, often shaping the nature of the sexual assault, the outcomes, and access to services post-assault. For example, African American women experience high rates of sexual assault, often relating to the historic stigmatization and fetishization of African American women sexuality, however, research shows they are less likely to disclose survivorship and seek out support due to stigma.

Intersectionality Within Statistics
Discussions on sexual assault have often ignored intersectionality and primarily focused on heterosexual dynamics, much less has been explored on how sexual assault is experienced among sexual and gender minorities (SGM) and the intersections of marginalized identities (i.e., race, gender, incarcerated, SES, etc.).

Incarcerated SGM
For example, institutionalized racism within the criminal legal system and accounts of police brutality make it less likely for SGM victims to involve the criminal legal system in the aftermath of sexual assault, this is particularly true for POC victims and sex workers. Within prisons, incarcerated gay (38%) and bisexual (33.7%) men are more likely than heterosexual men (3.5%) to be sexually violated by other inmates. Gay (11.8%) and bisexual men (17.5%) were sexually assaulted by prison staff compared to heterosexual men (5.2%). A different pattern is observed among incarcerated women. Incarcerated bisexual women (18.1%) are at a higher risk for sexual violation by other inmates than lesbian (12.1%) and heterosexual (13.1%) women. Compared to incarcerated heterosexual women, both lesbian and bisexual women are at higher risk for sexual violence victimization by prison staff. Transgender people are at an alarmingly high risk of sexual victimization within prisons compared to cisgender inmates. Transgender women incarcerated in men's prisons are at high risk of sexual violence.

Sexual Minorities
Within the general sexual minority, population research has consistently shown that bisexuals experience sexual assault more commonly throughout their lifetime than gay and lesbian people. Additionally, sexual minorities are more likely to be sexually assaulted while being incapacitated from substance use than heterosexuals.


 * Bisexual women (46.1%) experience sexual assault at alarmingly higher rates than lesbian (13.1%) and heterosexual (17.1%) women.
 * Among men, gay (40.2%) and bisexual (47.4%) men are twice as likely as heterosexual men (20.8%) to experience sexual abuse.
 * 43.5% of asexual individuals have reported revictimization of sexual assault.

Research shows that among self-identified lesbians in same-sex relationships sexual violence is the least common form of intimate partner violence, followed by physical violence, and psychological/emotional violence is the most prevalent. The previous findings emphasize the fact that sexual violence and its outcomes are influenced by the intersecting identities held by victims, and as a result, the prevalence and manifestation vary across intersecting identities. .

Gender Minorities
Gender minorities are at high risk for sexual assault. Transgender and gender-diverse individuals experience high rates of sexual assault, however, there are mixed reports about whether transgender women or transgender men experience more rates of sexual victimization. A meta-analysis suggested that transgender men (51%) and assigned female at birth (AFAB) nonbinary (58%) individuals are sexually victimized at higher rates than transgender women (37%) and assigned male at birth (AMAB) nonbinary (41%) individuals.

Research also suggests that SGM youth are often targeted for childhood sexual assault.

Stigma & Stereotypes
Aside from systemic influence, minority stress also manifests in the form of stigma, stereotypes, and discrimination that shape the nature of sexual violence. A risk factor for sexual violence and IPV in same-sex relationships include  homophobic stigma and internalized homophobic stigma. Common stereotypes assume that sexual violence is only experienced in heterosexual dynamics and that all same-sex relationships are egalitarian. Discrimination towards SGM may lead some individuals to conceal their sexual and gender orientation from those in their circle (i.e., family, friends, co-workers, ect.). SGM's decisions to conceal one's sexual or gender identity are known to be weaponized by same-sex partner's through "homophobic controlling behaviors," the act of threatening to disclose their partner's sexual orientation as a form of sexual coercion and emotional abuse. Some research has suggested that bisexual women are hypersexualized and targeted for sexual violence. Additionally, stigmas held within hypermasculine cultures associate femininity with weakness and submission often motivate sexual violence towards transgender women and cisgender women.

Survivorship Self-Disclosure
Self-disclosure on sexual violence varies across SGM. In regard to self-disclosure type (i.e., lifetime, child sexual assault, hate crime related sexual assault), lesbian and bisexual women are more likely to report lifetime experiences of sexual violence and intimate partner sexual violence compared to gay and bisexual men. Gay and bisexual men are more likely than lesbian and bisexual women to disclose sexual violence victimization as a hate crime. 59% of gay and bisexual men disclose experiencing childhood sexual abuse.

Another facet of the disclosure includes the source type or the source to which the survivor divulges their sexual assault. SGM survivors more frequently disclose their SA experience to informal sources (i.e., family, friends, peers, partners, etc.) than formal sources (i.e., police, doctors, therapists, ect), this is often related to individual and institutionalized stigma & discrimination.

Social responses to disclosure can potentially buffer or exacerbate (i.e., retraumatization) negative outcomes following sexual assault. Among SGM survivors, negative social response to self-disclosure of sexual assault relates to increased risk for PTSD and higher levels of distress. SGM survivors disclosing to formal sources are more likely to receive negative social responses than when disclosing to informal sources. Research shows that SGM survivors are met with mixed social responses to their sexual assault disclosure. Notably, bisexual women more commonly experience negative social reactions to their SA disclosure when compared to non-SGM women, and a similar parrallel exists among transgender survivors when compared to cisgender.