User:Albeliz SC/sandbox

There are many chemicals agents and physical factors that have the potential to be a reproductive hazard to men, women, and children. Exposure to many of these could occur at the workplace. Some examples include heavy metals (e.g. lead), noise, work schedules, heavy lifting, smoke and byproducts of burning, infectious agents, pesticides, heat, etc. In the United States, there are over 80,000 chemicals used in the workplace, many of which are untested or inadequately tested for reproductive toxicity.

Most notable case

 * United Automobile Workers v. Johnson Controls, Inc. - Johnson Controls, Inc. added a workplace policy that barred all women from employment, except for those who had medical evidence of infertility, with the purpose of protecting the women's fetuses from lead exposure. This led to a class action suit where it was established that Johnson Controls' fetal-protection policy violated Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Pregnancy Discrimination Act on the basis of gender discrimination.

Laws
The following laws have been important in the protection of workers, the protection of pregnant women in the workplace, and the regulation of chemicals used by industries in the United States.
 * 1) Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 - Created with the main objective of protecting workers by reducing hazards at their place of employment and implementing safety and health programs for employers and their employees.
 * 2) Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976 (TSCA) - Regulates the production, use, importation and disposal of chemicals. In June 22, 2016, President Obama approved a reform of the TSCA, called the Frank R. Lautenberg Chemical Safety for the 21st Century Act, which would improve the regulations of new and existing chemicals used in the country.
 * 3) Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978 - An amendment of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Title VII), which prohibits sex discrimination on the basis of pregnancy, childbirth, or related medical conditions.
 * 4) Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) and its amendment, the ADA Amendments Act of 2008 - Pregnancy is not considered an impairment because it is not the result of a physiological disorder, but a pregnancy-related impairment that limits major life activities, is not transitory or minor, or is considered as the basis for a prohibited employment would be covered under this Act.

Identifying and evaluating workplace risks
There are several critical windows of vulnerability that can affect the development of the fetus, which is an important factor to take into account when looking at workplace exposures before conception and during pregnancy. Women and their fetuses have different susceptibilities to chemicals and other exposures than men or non-pregnant women.

Types of exposures

 * 1) Chemical agents: pesticides, solvents, and formaldehyde.
 * 2) Non-chemical agents: noise, work schedule (e.g. long working hours, shiftwork, and irregular work schedules), radiation, and body positions (e.g. lifting, standing, bending).

Challenges

 * 1) Historically, most OSHA PELs (Permissible Exposure Limit) and NIOSH RELs (Recommended Exposure Limit) for existing chemicals have been determined using mostly men and have rarely included women, pregnant or non-pregnant.
 * 2) Very few of the all the chemicals used in the U.S. have been tested for reproductive toxicity.
 * 3) Chemicals where there is evidence of toxicity, reproductive or other, are often substituted by similar chemicals for which there is no toxicity data.
 * 4) The full extent of the toxicological profile of a chemical is not always known due to the lack of systematic testing for toxicity.
 * 5) Toxicity data for the chemicals that have been evaluated for toxicity is not always publicly available.

Reproductive health outcomes
Workplace exposures have the potential to cause a wide array of health and reproductive problems in men and women.

=== In men ===
 * Erectile dysfunction
 * Decrease of hormone levels
 * Decrease in sex drive
 * Changes in the amount of semen, ejaculation quality, and decrease of penis sensitivity
 * Changes in the number and quality of sperm

=== In women ===
 * Infertility and subfertility
 * Miscarriages
 * Menstrual cycle disorders
 * Stillbirths
 * Birth defects
 * Premature birth of offspring or too small offspring
 * Sex hormone imbalance that can, in turn, cause other health problems such as some cancers, osteoporosis and heart disease, among others.

Types of occupational exposures and effects on pregnancy
Various studies have shown the potential negative effects on pregnancy by different occupational exposures of women.