User:Alexinemuf/sandbox

Students with disabilities in a post secondary education setting

Introduction

This study will examine students with disabilities rarely attempt college studies; they are normally not capable to finish their course work or course of study because of the nature of their illness and its treatment. Disability clusters, such as citizens with bodily disabilities, wisdom disabilities or acquired brain injury, have been documented as needing extra services in order to have right of entry to and to be victorious in the postsecondary surroundings. Scholar services for citizens with these disabilities are hardly ever available in some campuses. In the previous 5 years, this lack of services has been determined, and a revolution is beginning to occur.

Public Law 93-112; the Rehabilitation Act (1973), and, more specifically, Section 504, included "constant cerebral sickness" amid those circumstances that are sheltered from bias and needed adjustment. Colleges, universities and other postsecondary training settings, such as technical schools, are becoming increasingly aware of this population and the legal and moral authorization to give identical access and special events (Barbaro, 2002).

Nowadays lot of supported Programs have been emerged for the disable students that serve people with psychiatric disabilities, bodily disabilities, wisdom disabilities or acquired brain injury in a postsecondary educational setting. These programs have contain many appearances, but all recognize that the college or postsecondary education environment is an suitable setting for citizens with all type of disabilities and that to be victorious these people may require particular programs and extra help. This idea of helping people with disabilities in an educational setting has been called "supported education" since it contribute numerous of the same objectives and principles of supported employment instructive (Brinckerhoff, 2003).

The secondary level, learning disabilities literature offers limited hard data on learning disabled adolescents' reading behaviors and pedagogical programming that meet these students' reading needs. It supports the view that reading disorders, specifically comprehension problems, rank high on the list of academic deficiencies but provide little information delineating specific behavioral manifestations.

Reviewing the extant literature, one finds a host of variables that researchers have hypothesized contribute to reading problems and a number of pedagogical strategies they recommend to develop appropriate reading skills. Unfortunately, the hard data necessary to validate these investigators' positions either are not included or are contaminated by the researchers' use of faulty methodological procedures.

Because the adolescent learning disabled population and resultant instructional programs have mushroomed in recent years, it is imperative that the learning disabilities field support and provide impetus for future secondary level research.

Definition of Supported Education

The description of supported education is stand on the description of supported employment. The 1986 Rehabilitation Act Amendments describe supported employment as: "Competitive work in integrated settings (a) for persons with severe disabilities for whom sophisticated employment has not conventionally occurred, or (b) for whom competitive employment has been intervallic or irregular as a result of severe disability, and who, because of their disability, need constant help services to carry out such work." (Chickering, 2003).

By the help of above mentioned description it become easy to say: "Education in incorporated settings for citizens with severe disabilities for whom postsecondary learning has not conventionally occurred or for citizens for whom postsecondary education has been intervallic or irregular as a consequence of a severe disability and who, because of their handicap, need constant support services to be successful in the education environment.

Comparison of normal and disable student

In our daily life it is very common observation that some students with normal capabilities do not respond effectively towards education. Students wander into the classroom with the expectation of receiving information which they are to absorb. The first few minutes are spent locating their habitual spots, shuffling papers, and scanning the classroom for hints of an assignment. It appears that the students are totally dependent upon the teacher to disseminate knowledge while they merely sit and play the role of passive learners.

Unaware of their responsibility in the reaming process, these same students experience boredom and low productivity that often lead to low attendance and academic failure (Cuyjet, 2002). Critics of the educational system tend to justify and excuse these poor student outcomes. Therefore, when students do not achieve at an acceptable level, it is only natural to blame the instructor of the class, the course content, the assessment methods, the class schedule, or the facilities. At best, this method of educating students is faulty because it takes away the student's sense of responsibility in the learning process, it deprives students of their independence and need for freedom, it diminishes their power of decision making, and it hinders their self-development (Bacon, 2000).

On the contrary, the students having disabilities are more curious to learn than normal students. They keep their utmost attention during the lecture and they maintain proper notes in their convenient manner. They never engage themselves in any mal activity and they maintain proper decorum of the class room.

Review of literature

Learning Disabled Students

Much of the evidence about the reading characteristics of learning disabled adolescents has been secured through clinical observation. The literature offers little empirical data to compile a workable learning disabled reader model. Clinical Observations

Critchley (1964) presented clinical manifestations of learning disabled adolescent readers. He observed their reading rates to be one to six times slower than normal readers. Critchley also presented an extensive classification of oral reading errors, such as the inability to pronounce a word, wild guessing, problems in keeping place while reading, incorrect pronunciation of vowels and consonants, and reversals (e.g., "saw" for "was"). Excessive vocalizing was observed during silent reading. Orton (1937) noted similar characteristics to those of Critchley. In addition, he found learning disabled adolescents had difficulties recognizing words at sight, confusing letters, omitting small words that changed meanings, and in auditory discrimination. These students also had difficulty gaining meaning from long sentences or paragraphs.

Clinical manifestations found by Critchley and Orton was also observed by Bryant (1969). Other manifestations of reading difficulties of learning disabled adolescents who were clinically observed include lack of basic sight vocabulary and phonic recognition (Rabinovitch 1962), inability to process auditory material sequentially and the lack of adequate mnemonic or automatic memory (Isom 1969), incomplete memory of the letters of the alphabet (Carner 1969), and inability to recall specific words in oral reading and to visualize objects, words, or letters (Johnson & Myklebust 1967).

Factors Promoting Problems for Secondary Learning Disabled Students

Although emphasis on literal comprehension is questioned by many professionals, the ability to recall facts at the secondary level is necessary for academic competence (Hunt 1970). "In most secondary classes students need to be able to recall both studied and oral materials so that they may participate in class and take examinations with some degree of skill," according to McKay (1970, p. 166).

Burmeister (1974) emphasized the knowledge of facts because it allows secondary students not only to participate in class but also to generalize to broader concepts. Aukerman (1972) stated most poignantly the relationship between reading for detail and academic competence:

From past experiences, it would seem that content in the secondary school is almost synonymous with fact finding. If this is true, any student who is to be successful in a subject-matter area must devise ways of reading for facts. In view of the fact that comprehension disorders are the most prominent reading disabilities manifested by secondary learning disabled students, the overemphasis on literal comprehension is one factor that fosters reading problems within high schools. Characteristics of instructional printed materials used in the secondary classes also contribute to learning disabled students' reading problems. As early as 1923 Lively and Pressey recognized that many textbooks were written at an unnecessarily difficult level. Today "teachers and students find unreadable material from time to time in secondary text" (Aukerman 1972, p. 71). The problem of textbook difficulty has been ascribed to the spiraling effect of generating knowledge through succeeding grade levels:

Each grade level sets new and most exacting reading requirements for the pupil. Through the grades new courses are added (and) new or revised textbooks in the content fields, even for the same grade, appear to be more comprehensive and complex. (Hunt 1970, p. 27)

Follow-up Studies Very few follow-up studies have been conducted to differentiate reading characteristics between elementary and secondary learning disabled students (Herjanic & Penick 1972). Two pertinent studies are presented. Koppitz (1972) conducted a follow-up study of 177 learning disabled adolescents aged 11 to 17 with a mean IQ of 92. She found that reading disorders were not remediated by a single method or training technique. She also found that learning disabled adolescents continued to have difficulty with visual-motor and auditory perception. The adolescents continued to manifest problems in reading comprehension.

Muehl and Forell (1973) followed up learning disabled adolescents who had been referred to a reading clinic five years earlier. After five years no significant relationship was found between electroencephalograph findings and reading achievement. Only two subjects had reading scores above the 15th percentile. The better group of readers in this study had higher IQs and were younger when first referred for remedial reading.

Remedial or Intervention Strategies Special educators have assumed that reading disabled students need unique programs to learn to read. Programs specially designed to meet the needs of the elementary reading disabled population and possibly applicable for the secondary level include Alphaphonetic (Gillingham & Stillman 1965), Visual-Auditory-Kinesthetic-Tactile (Fernald 1943), Synthetic-Phonetic (Monroe 1932), Color Phonics System (Bannatyne 1966), and Words in Color (Gattegno 1962).

Other programs such as basal series, phonics, phonic-linguistics, linguistics, programmed series, ita, and language experience, which were developed to meet the reading needs of the general school population, are also used in the secondary special education setting. Special education personnel either follow the teaching format suggested in the program's teacher manuals or modify and supplement the program format to meet the needs of their handicapped readers. This first area of the literature also reports a few experimental and quasi-experimental studies in which learning disabled adolescents were used as subjects to investigate or compare reading methods. It is difficult to draw conclusions from these studies because they suffer from experimental limitations identified earlier in this article as well as those associated with method research. Many of these studies do not provide descriptive or inferential data.

Landis, Jones, and Kennedy (1973) reported the results of a secondary reading program for learning disabled adolescents in which a multi-sensory approach replaced the typical textbook oriented instruction in the content area. Teachers wrote behavioral objectives and developed multisensory materials to meet those objectives. The one-year program concentrated on word recognition, comprehension, and reading study skills. Content curriculum was not "watered down." It was reported that learning disabled adolescents read at a higher level and demonstrated improved comprehension. Neither assessment instruments nor test data were reported.

Lane (1970) used Cecelia Pollack's Inter-sensory Reading Method, a phonic-linguistic program, during a four-month period. Eleventh-, seventh-, and eighth-grade learning disabled nonreaders showed an average reading gain of 12 months, diminished disruptive behavior, and improved classroom deportment and attention. The reading achievement test used was not identified. Lane, Pollack, and Sher (1972) instituted a cross-age tutorial program in which secondary learning disabled students tutored third- and fourth-grade problem readers twice a week for seven months. Weekly rap sessions were held for the tutors to train them in the use of behavior modification techniques to improve behavior and strengthen the self-images of the secondary learning disabled adolescents. The learning disabled adolescents showed an average reading gain of 19 months as measured by the Metropolitan Achievement Test. Counselors rated their classroom behavior as satisfactory, and they rated their classroom behavior as satisfactory. The adolescents rated themselves as confident of their own abilities, less an, and more responsible. Maine (1968) applied the Orton-Gillingham method at the junior high level. The learning disabled subjects also engaged in one hour of calisthenics and trampoline exercise per week. Maine reported successful gains in reading but provided no test data.

Bursuk (1971) investigated the relationship between mode of instruction and modality preference when comprehension was emphasized. Ninety disabled adolescents were taught one semester using various mediums of instruction and modality preference. Those adolescents taught by an aural-visual method had significantly higher comprehension scores than those adolescents taught with visual methods (California Achievement Test).

Finally, a number of publications describe successful reading intervention techniques used with secondary learning disabled students. Cole (1967) utilized a rehabilitation program in which reading skills were developed by taking into account the students' lives and future occupations. McDonnell (1971) found that the use of humanistic and reinforcement systems improved reading ability. Neely (1972) used driving manuals to develop reading skills in nonreaders.

Nolen, Kunzelmann, and Haring (1967) found behavior modification helped secondary learning disabled students to complete increased reading task demands. Page, Prentice, and Thomas (1967) utilized cross-age tutorial programs singly or in combination with other techniques to improve reading ability. Scott (1970) reported that interrelating listening, speaking, reading, and writing activities increased reading comprehension. Lindsey (1977) found that learning goals increased learning disabled adolescents' recall of goal-relevant information and did not affect the recall of incidental information.

Discussion

The negative experiences many students have in school can be avoided and counteracted when teachers cultivate sensitivity to the broader contexts of students' lives and use teaching methods that value and support all students irrespective of their group membership. Disable students should be offered more self-help programs on campus such as time management and stress reduction. Adjusting to campus life is within itself a learning process. Instructors should take their advising roles seriously and reach beyond academics to student assistance in developing strategic plans for overcoming obstacles to learning. They should make themselves aware of available resources on their campuses and in their communities when assisting students in balancing their personal, professional, and academic lives.

References

Amara, A., Language therapy to salvage the college potential of dyslexic adolescents. Bulletin of the Orion Society,1972, 22, 123-139.

Arena, J., A hand on the present with an eye to the future. In L. Anderson (Ed.), Helping the Adolescent with the Hidden Handicap. Los Angeles: California Association for Neurologically Handicapped Children, 1970.

Aukerman, R.C., Reading in the Secondary School Classroom. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc, 1972.

Bacon, C. S. (2000). Creating responsible students. Clearing House.

Barbaro, G (2002). The learning disable college student: Some considerations in objectives. Journal of Learning Disabilities.

Bimbaum, J. (2001). Crybabies: External victims. Time.

Brinckerhoff, L.C (2003). Promoting Post-Secondary Education for students with Learning Disabilities. Austin: Pro-ed.

Charles, C. (2002). Building Classroom Discipline. White Plains, NY: Longman.

Chickering, A.W. (2003). Education and identity. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Cole, N., School habilitation program for secondary students. Rehabilitation Literature, 1967, 28, 170-176.

Corno, L. (2002). Encouraging students to take responsibility for learning performance. The Elementary School Journal.

Critchley, M., Developmental Dyslexia Springfield, ill.. Charles C Thomas, Publisher, 1964

Cuyjet, M.J. (2002). Helping African American Men Succeed in College, SanFrancisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Dalke, C. (2000). Meeting the transition needs of college bound students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities.

Drake, C., Cavanaugh, J ,T eaching the high school dyslexic. In L. Anderson (Ed.), Helping the Adolescent with the Hidden Handicap. Los Angeles: California Association for Neurologically Handicapped Children, 1970

Dultz, R. (2004). Educating the Entire Person. Reseda, CA: Ron Dultz Publication.

Gagne, R.M., The Conditions of Learning (2nd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, Inc, I970.

Gattegno, C., Words in Color. Chicago: Learning Materials, Inc., 1962.

Getman, G.N., Visual training as a useful resource. Part I: Is adolescence too late? In L. Anderson (Ed.), Helping the Adolescent with the Hidden Handicap. Los Angeles: California Association for Neurologically Handicapped Children, 1970.

Gillingham, A, Stillman, B., Remedial Training for Children with Specific Disability in Reading, Spelling and Penman-ship (5th ed.). Cambridge: Educators Publishing Service, 1965.

Hwang, Y. G. (2005). Student apathy, lack of self-responsibility and false self-esteem are failing American schools. Education. Johnson, D., Myklebust, H., Learning Disabilities: Educational Principles and Practices. New York: Grune & Stratton, Inc. 1967.

Koppitz, E.M., Special class pupils with teaming disabilities: A five-year follow-up study. Academic Therapy, 1972,8, 133-153 . Landis, J., Jones, R.W, Kennedy, L.D., Curricular modification for secondary school reading. Journal of Reading, 1973, 16, 374-378.

Lane, D., Pollack, C., Sher, N., Remotivation of disruptive adolescents. Journal of Reading, 1972, 15, 351-354.

Lane, P., Miller, M., Listening: Learning for underachieving adolescents. Journal of Reading, 1972, 15, 488-491.

McClelland, J., Adolescents. It's never too late to learn Bulletin

McDonnell, K., Bridging the achievement gap in negative learning adolescents In 1. Arena (Ed.), The Child with Learning Disabilities: His Right to Learn. Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Conference, ACLD, Chicago, 1971.

McKay, J.W., The nature and extent of word-study skills. In A. Olson, W. Ames (Eds.), Teaching Reading Skills in Secondary Schools: Readings. Scranton, Pa : International Textbook Co, 1970 of the Orton Society, 1974, 24, 141-153.

Wlodkowski, R. J. (2004). Motivation and Teaching: A Practical Guide. Washington, DC: National Education Association.

Adopted From Somaye Zarei Babaarabi, INtl. J of New Org Trends and Researches under creative commons attribution license