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Pulsotron Fusion Reactor

Pulsotron are nuclear fusion reactors of the Z-pinch model. Z-Pinches consists basically in a capacitor bank that discharges its energy in a target.

There are several configurations but the first one and the more straightforward consists on a capacitor bank connected to a switch, discharging the energy through a gas cylinder, ionizing it and then introducing an extreme discharge of current flowing through it that should overcome a million amps.

The flowing current generates an extreme magnetic field that can reach more than a hundred kiloteslas that self-compress the plasma if the discharge is uniformly distributed. Over 1.000 Megabars pressure, nuclear fusion begins. It was used as a straight wire in the past, but then it appeared instabilities break the wire, thus exploding.

Advanced Ignition worked hard to solve the instabilities making up to 650 tests in the Pulsotron-1 and two machines, improving the target design until 2013 when fusion conditions were met. Then was certified the ignition conditions in a specialized certification company in Barcelona, Spain.

To check that the plasma is confined by the magnetic field, several electric, optics, and magnetic sensor arrays and high-speed X-ray cameras were installed in Z-pinches.

Pulsotron fusion reactor is a source of power and has the advantages that out-weights fission. One of these advantages includes using clean fuel that does not generate radioactivity and nuclear waste and increased safety. Nevertheless, the combination of time, pressure, and temperature has proven to be more difficult to produce more economically and pragmatically. There have been some experiments going on in z-pinches and other fusion reactors since the 1940s. Still, today, none of the designs has ever produced more fusion power than the inputs in electrical power. Researchers dedicated to pulsotron fusion reactors have researched different confinement concepts. Their original idea has always been on two primary systems: magnetic mirrors and z-pinch.

Pulsotron-3 entered service on January 2020, only three months after finishing its design. It performed 77 tests. This was the first reactor to have ERC: electric recovery coils that collect energy from plasma and store it at capacitors. In August 2020, it broke all the records by recovering 88% of the plasma's injected electric energy. It is calculated that 8.8% of the injected fuel burned. Moreover, it demonstrated that nuclear fusions generate large magnetic fields.

A Graph show Energy Recovering. The new Pulsotron-4 reactor of the Z-pinch operated by the Spanish startup Advanced Ignition SL from September 2020 has been reported to generate a magnetic field in its second test that involves saturating two out of the three sensors, which measures 5.34 Megateslas. From the estimate, the magnetic field is ten times larger than in the former Pulsotron-3, which is the first of its kind to recover electric energy from a plasma. One of the experiments measured more than four megateslas in all of the three magnetic sensors. The sensors were designed to measure up to 4 gigahertz of non-static magnetic fields.

In December 2020 it was installed electromagnetic mirrors that is the first time done in any z-pinch. The electromagnetic mirrors concentrate the magnetic field along a line and the nuclear fusion and the generated alpha particles instead of randomly generating them in the three axes. It was tested in ERC chambers number 22, 24, and 27B Experiments.

The experiments require installing a combustion chamber connected to the capacitor bank and the main switch, using a high power strip or coaxial lines. Then filling it using Boron-11 hydride nuclear fuel; all the chamber is covered using an alpha particles shield. Then the capacitor bank is charged to maximum capacity, and all tests equipment and cameras are set, then the discharge is performed. The boron-11 hydride gets fully ionized and compressed under extreme pressures, making fusions, ionizing all chamber gas (from 0-30 bars), and generating electric energy directly at the ERCs that flows to the secondary capacitor bank. The current must be rectified to avoid that the capacitor bank is discharged after the test.

At the beginning of the tests, several parts of the combustion chamber were damaged and the recovered energy fused the electric lines due to more than a mega amp were extracted from the plasma. Then they were redesigned and no more problems happened. Then in April 2020, Pulsotron-3 new ERCs were tested with an energy recovery record. Still, as a result, the Pulsotron-3 was damaged and can store only 90% of the nominal power; not only the main bank was damaged, and several internal blasts place it out of order. It was repaired, but it was impossible to charge the capacitor bank at full power from that date, so it was decided to design the new Pulsotron-4 instead of repair Pulsotron-3. During the processing of the tests reports obtained from Pulsotron-3 tests, the magnetic field in nuclear fusions is estimated to be 20-34 times more than using dummy loads, thereby revealing the magnetic fusion as an alternative to generating nuclear reactions. That revealing are expected to be included in the Quantum Mechanics. On September 2020 entered in service Pulsotron-4 that demonstrated to generate more powerful blasts and magnetic field, damaging first combustion chambers.

The engineers from Advanced Ignition SL had mounted a whole new Energy Recovery Coils (ERCs) in a bid to retrieve electric energy straight from the plasma – the first time it ever happened. To complete this process, they triggered the reactor, after which a powerful discharge of millions of amperes ran via the target filled with thermonuclear fuel. The magnetic probe (which was new), used on it allowed them to measure a very high magnetic field. Hence, in the secondary oscilloscope contains a more significant voltage pulse collected in the stored ERCs. Pulsotron-4 tests were revealed to generate a double magnetic field than its predecessor. In December, a magnetic mirror was installed that boosted the energy generation 20 times, generating a large burst that destroyed 40% of the Pulsotron-4 splitting its main combustion chamber ERC-22 into small pieces. It was replaced by ERC-21 that recovered ore energy, and then it was replaced by ERC-24 with magnetic mirrors. As a result, the chamber was blown again, establishing that the new magnetic mirrors allow burning almost 100% of the injected fuel. Still, a more robust combustion chamber and energy recovery coils are needed.

In January 2021, it was installed Electromagnetic Mirror at combustion chamber 27B that was severy damaged but can be repaired.

As a consequence of ERC 22,24 and 27B, it is highly suspected that almost all nuclear fuel was fused, beating the energy generation record again.

Economic Relevance

Profit from these reactors' target markets is expected to generate 1.3 million new jobs, $185B sales every year and generate $39B taxes. This is enough to transform the economic life of an average medium country (third world countries). Some of the ways it is likely to do this are through powering irrigation systems that will directly boost the agro-industry. It can also serve as an alternative source of power, thereby minimizing climate change by reducing CO2 emissions to the barest minimum. As it stands, the Advanced Ignition has been named the next big thing in commercial reactors as it now has 0.4 to 4 megawatts range of power. As the world continues to face a decline in desalinated water, which is important in agricultural irrigation and drinking water. The most recommended way to fight this impending scourge of declining water level is the "short term reactors," probably the Pulsotron and the     Miranda reactor.

In a typical fusion model, limited space with enough pressure and temperature is required. Again, a confinement time to build a plasma in which fusion can take place is needed. There are certain advantages nuclear fusion has over fission; some of them include a reduction in radioactive operations and ample fuel supplies, an increase in safety, and a little high-level nuclear waste. There are proves that the combination of pressure and temperature are difficult more pragmatically and economically. The finding into fusion power had started some 80 years back; today, no current discovery has generated the kind of outcome the electrical power has done.

Currently, their two leading designs: the Inertial Confinement (ICF) and the Tokamak. The two structures are extensively under research, especially the ITER tokamak located in France and the National Ignition Facility laser in the United States. Again, these researchers are also currently studying some other designs that can offer a less expensive approach. These other designs include inertial electrostatic confinement, magnetized target fusion, and the stellarator's latest variations.

In fusion power experiment, the Zeta Pinch (or Z-pinch) is considered a type of plasma confinement system which uses electrical currents found in the plasma to produce a magnetic field that can compress it. The system was named Bennett pinch; it was named after Willard Harrison Bennet: an American scientist and inventor. But the introduction of the θ-pinch concept had led to clearer explanations about the fusion experiment. The name, in a way, refers to the Z-axis on a normal three-dimensional graph. Any machine causing any form of pinch effect runs in a direction known as a "Z-pinch system," with different purposes. The early use of the fusion experiment is in donut-shaped tubes about the Z-axis and runs down inside the tube. Today, modern tools used in fusion experiments are often cylindrical and employed in generating some high-intensity x-ray sources for some experimentation.

History

The experiment into nuclear fusion can be traced back to the early 20th century. A British physicist   Francis William Aston had made a discovery. According to him, the total mass of four hydrogen atoms weights more than the total mass of one helium atom (He-4); this development went ahead to prove that it can be released by mixing hydrogen atoms to form helium. This did more in providing the first clue of a mechanism whose stars could lead to the development of energy in measurable quantities. But in the early 1920s, another scientist Arthur Stanley Eddington became a top pioneer of the proton with his famous proton chain reaction (PP reaction), which he explained to be the major system running the sun.

First Neutrons from fusion were first discovered by Ernest Rutherford's staff in 1933, at the University of Cambridge. Mark Oliphant first conceived the idea of this experiment, and had established that the movement of the energy rate has up to 600,000 electron volts. In 1939, Hans Bethe verified a theory that shows that quantum tunneling and beta decay in the sun has the ability to transform protons into neutrons; thus, producing deuterium rather than a diproton. This work later earned Hans Bethe a Nobel Prize in Physics.

The List of Fusion Reactors Tokamak

Tokamak is a tool used in confining hot plasma in the shape of a torus with the help of a powerful magnetic field. The Tokamak is one of many types of magnetic confinement tools developed to create controlled thermonuclear fusion power. In modern times, 2020 precisely, Tokamak has grown to become one of the top choices for a practical fusion reactor. The idea of tokamaks was formally conceptualized back in the 1950s by Russian (then Soviet Union) physicists Igor Tamm and Andrei Sakharov. It was inspired by a letter written by Oleg Lavrentiev, but the first functional Tokamak was traced to Natan Yavlinsky in 1958, on the T-1. It is now evident that a more stable plasma equilibrium needs magnetic field lines to wind around the torus in a helix.

Some devices have been deployed to do this, but always fail due to their instability. But the development of a concept known as "the safety factor" helped guide the achievements recorded in Tokamak's development. This is done by organizing the reactor in such a way that the critical factor Q is way greater than one. With this, the tokamaks have greatly exceeded the instability earlier experienced in it's earlier designs. With this improvement, the Tokamak had begun showing great performance in the early 1950s, but its previous results (which were ignored) were released in 1965 – Lyman Spitzer dismissed the results after he noted some problems in measuring the temperatures.

The second time these results were published was in 1968; unlike the former, they claim that the performance was far more advanced in any machine. This led the (then) Soviets to invite delegations from the UK to perform their measurements. After the delegation had released their results, (which also rhymed with the results of the Soviets), a publication was released in 1969 which triggered a stampede in tokamak construction. And by the early 1970s, tens of tokamaks had already been in use. But by the late 1970s, the Tokamak was reported to have reached all requirements needed for a functional fusion.

This is the first-ever fusion reactor coupled to direct electric coils, thus, recovering energy from alpha particles. Pulsotron-3 is the first fusion reactor to recover electric energy from plasma directly, and it has recorded over 88.17% of this injected energy. The Pulsotron-4's main duty is to allow the engineers to build energy-generating reactors that have the propensity to power the world.

The Joint European (JET) Torus This is a magnetically restricted physics experiment located somewhere at Culham Centre for Fusion Energy, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom (CCFE). Motivated by a tokamak design, this fusion experiment facility is a joint project sponsored by a group of European nations with the sole purpose of creating more opportunities for the development of more nuclear fusion energy. This project was the biggest machine in development when the JET design had commenced. The intention behind JET was to reach a scientific breakeven, which it later did. The operation kicked off in 1983, and it has spent over ten years increasing its performance through a series of experiments that have led to its upgrade.

The first experiment was carried out in 1991, which included tritium, thereby making the JET project the first-ever reactor in the world to be powered by production fuel of a 50–50 mix of deuterium and tritium. A diverter design was added to JET around 1991 and 1993, after which its performance gained significant improvement. And sometime in 1997, it broke a record by reaching Q = 0.67 and producing 16 MW of fusion power, which was considered a scientific breakeven. The 16 MW of fusion power was generated by injecting 24 MW of thermal power into the fuel's heat. But unfortunately, between 2009/2011, JET was shut down for renovation and upgrade; the major purpose is to adapt the model used in the development of the ITER, located in Saint-Paul-lès-Durance, south of France.

Advantages of Pulsotron

The main Z-pinch advantages are: •	It comes with a complex design, no needs cryogenics coils and the target is self-compressed uniformly by the passing current The specific Pulsotron Advantages are:

•	Pulsotron-3 is the first world fusion device to recover electric energy from fusion. It recovered up to 88% of the electricity, when reached 200% we can start to sell commercial reactors. The main competitor JET which cost was >10B€ recovers 30% and is thermal.

•	Pulsotron-4 have high efficiency magnetic mirrors that allows to generate more energy than Pulsotron-3.

Other Advantages:

•	Pulsotron-3 is based in Pulsotron-2 that was the first fusion reactor to certify Ignition Conditions.

•	It does use coils for compression, hence, simpler. •	It doesn’t need a vacuum to function. It has fewer devices and it easily cools down.

•	It is less problematic because of the instabilities. As long as the current travels through it, the plasma generates its compressing field, so the magnetic field is more uniform.

•	Pulsotron-4 is 13 times more powerful.

•	Pulsotron is simple and robust.

•	It uses Boron-11 and proton fusion, which is widely known as clean energy alongside Proton-Lithium6 and Proton-Beryllium reactions which are regarded as another source of clean fuel.

•	It is easy to change parts and configurations.

•	Easy to build: can be built in a few months.

•	Several different configurations can be tested.

•	Carry Direct Electricity Generation coils to reach the market fast.

•	It doesn't break the wire, it takes up to 650 tests and modifications to make it possible, so we can reach ignition

•	It is designed to reach ignition conditions.