User:Alissa8/sandbox

This is a user sandbox.

= Chimú Culture =

Shell
The Chimú highly valued mollusk shell for its rarity and economic and political significance as a as a luxury good traded over long distances, and the shell was often viewed as a symbol of elite status and divine powers. Using shell as a medium for their art and artifacts, the Chimú frequently employed the shell of Spondylus, a type of marine bivalve mollusk.

The most abundant Spondylus species present in Peru are Spondylus calcifer Carpenter and Spondylus princeps Broderip. Spondylus calcifer has red and white hues, primarily used for beads and artifacts. While this species resides in shallower waters and is easier to obtain, the Spondylus princeps, known as the “thorny oyster” for its characteristic spines, is a solid red color and can only be harvested by experienced divers, and thus, is more highly desired by the Chimú.

Uses and Symbolism
Spondylus shell had a wide variety of uses in Andean culture and took a variety of forms, ranging from whole shells to fragments to ground shell powder. This material was worked to create intricately carved ornaments and goods reserved for the nobles and deities. Shell fragments have found as inlays for body ornaments and as beads for pieces of jewelry, and the image to the right displays a Chimú collar made of cotton, red Spondylus shell beads, and black stone beads. The Chimú were known to create a “red carpet” made of ground shell powder on which significant political figures could walk. Shell were likewise used for ornamentation of certain buildings and architectural structures.

Found in the tombs of nobles, these artifacts were often used as burial goods as offerings to the gods and played a role in sacrificial practices. Due to its aquatic origins, shells symbolized agricultural fertility and were used as offerings in agricultural fields to gods to promote abundant crop yields. The Chimú also placed shells in sources of water, such as wells and springs, to bring water and rain to their fields, especially in times of drought.

Moreover, the symbolic significance of the Spondylus shell is closely tied to the physical attributes and biological properties of the bivalve. Characteristic morphology contributed to the association of the shell with divine power and the supernatural world. The external spines of Spondylus lend to the shell its protective qualities and association with strength. Because of its shape and red blood-like color, the shell often represents death and ritual bloodletting practices, as well as the female reproductive body parts.

Spondylus has specialized sensory organs, in particular sensitive eyes and papillae, that Andean cultures associated with extra sensory protection. Sensitive to temperature changes in water and thriving in warner waters, the shell was thought to have divinatory powers, and because its migratory patterns are related to El Niño conditions, its presence is seen as an omen for disaster.

Moreover, Spondylus exhibits seasonal toxicity, known as Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP). Twice a year, the shell contains in its mollusk tissue substances that are toxic to humans, caused by toxic algae that the shells consume. During these months, the shells are offered to weather and fertility deities as “food for the gods,” as it was thought that only the gods were powerful enough to eat the flesh of the bivalve. At tolerable levels, human consumption of the toxic flesh of the shellfish can result in muscle weakness, mind-altering states, and euphoria, but in more concentrated doses, can lead to paralysis and death. These hallucinogenic effects contributed to the association of the shell with spiritual transcendence, and Spondylus was viewed as bridge between physical and supernatural worlds.

Trade and Exchange
Much of the existing evidence for the use of shell in the Andes comes from archaeological discoveries and colonial documents and points to the abundance of shell-working, with the remains of shell workshops and artifacts uncovered in many sites in Peru. However, little evidence documents the movement of Spondylus from its source in Ecuador to workshops in Chan Chan. (Pillsbury, Chan Chan) The archaeological record indicates that Chimor was an important center for the exchange of trade, and shell often traveled long distances from its geographic source to reach the empire of Chimor. The trade of Spondylus was integral to the expanding political power and economy of the Chimú (Alexander J. Martin) The shell was viewed as an exotic material, and the Chimor control of the exchange of the imported luxury good served as a means of political control, establishing and legitimizing the rule of the nobles through a religious and financial basis for power (Pillsbury, Chan Chan)

Little information exists about the means by which Spondylus was acquired and exchanged along trade routes, but many scholars have proposed various models for Spondylus movement(A. Paulsen) It is likely that the marine bivalve was traded either through independent merchants or state-administered long-distance trade, with a north-south exchange of the items (Pillsbury, Chan Chan). One of the first accounts of exchange of Spondylus is a report written by Spanish colonist Francisco Xerez, who was a member of Francisco Pizarro expedition, and describes a raft of luxury goods, such as textiles, emeralds, and gold and silver objects, which were to be traded for Spondylus shells (Met website

Scholars likewise disagree on the transportation methods of shells and whether they were exported via sea or land (A. Paulsen). Imagery in Andean pottery and reliefs exists that depicts llama caravans carrying shell, providing evidence that the transportation of shell was at least in part overland.

Techniques
Actual text in article:

Shell
The Chimú highly valued mollusk shell for its economic and political significance as a as a luxury good traded over long distances, and the shell was often viewed as a symbol of elite status and divine powers. Using shell as a medium for their art and artifacts, the Chimú frequently employed the shell of Spondylus, a type of marine bivalve mollusk.

The most abundant Spondylus species present in Peru are Spondylus calcifer Carpenter and Spondylus princepsBroderip. Spondylus calcifer has red and white hues, primarily used for beads and artifacts. While this species resides in shallower waters and is easier to obtain, the Spondylus princeps, known as the “thorny oyster” for its characteristic spines, is a solid red color and can only be harvested by experienced divers, and thus, is more highly desired by the Chimú.

Uses and Symbolism
Chimú collar, 12th-14th century, made of Spondylus beads, stone beads, and cotton. Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Spondylus shell had a wide variety of uses in Andean culture and took a variety of forms, ranging from whole shells to fragments to ground shell powder. This material was worked to create intricately carved ornaments, tools, and goods reserved for the nobles and deities. Shell fragments have found as inlays for body ornaments and as beads for pieces of jewelry, and the image to the right displays a Chimú collar made of cotton, red Spondylus shell beads, and black stone beads. The image below displays a sling shot made of shell. Representing wealth and power, the shell was ground into powder and spread out before the Chimor king by an official called the Fonga Sigde, forming a “red carpet” for the ruler as he walked. Shell were likewise used for ornamentation of certain buildings and architectural structures.

Found in the tombs of nobles, these artifacts were often used as burial goods as offerings to the gods and played a role in sacrificial practices. Due to its aquatic origins, shells symbolized agricultural fertility and were used as offerings in agricultural fields to gods to promote abundant crop yields. The Chimú also placed shells in sources of water, such as wells and springs, to bring water and rain to their fields, especially in times of drought. Chimú or Chancay sling shot with shells, 14th-15th century, made of shell, wool, cotton, and beads. Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Moreover, the symbolic significance of the Spondylus shell is closely tied to the physical attributes and biological properties of the bivalve. Characteristic morphology contributed to the association of the shell with divine power and the supernatural world. The external spines of Spondylus lend to the shell its protective qualities and association with strength. Because of its shape and red blood-like color, the shell often represents death and ritual bloodletting practices, as well as the female reproductive body parts.

Spondylus has specialized sensory organs, in particular sensitive eyes and papillae, that Andean cultures associated with extra sensory protection. Sensitive to temperature changes in water and thriving in warner waters, the shell was thought to have divinatory powers, and because its migratory patterns are related to El Niño conditions, its presence is seen as an omen for disaster.

Moreover, Spondylus exhibits seasonal toxicity, known as Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP). Twice a year, the shell contains in its mollusk tissue substances that are toxic to humans, caused by toxic algae that the shells consume.During these months, the shells are offered to weather and fertility deities as “food for the gods,” as it was thought that only the gods were powerful enough to eat the flesh of the bivalve. At tolerable levels, human consumption of the toxic flesh of the shellfish can result in muscle weakness, mind-altering states, and euphoria, but in more concentrated doses, can lead to paralysis and death. These hallucinogenic effects contributed to the association of the shell with spiritual transcendence, and Spondylus was viewed as bridge between physical and supernatural worlds.

Diving
Though the remains of shell workshops and artifacts are abundant in Chimor, the Spondylus shell originates in the warm waters of Ecuador. Harvesting the shell is both a time and labor-intensive process, requiring experienced divers to free dive to depths of up to 50 meters and pry the shells off of rocks. Chimú or Lambayeque earspool, Late Intermediate Period, Central Andes, made of gold-copper alloy and silver alloy. Michael C. Carlos Museum.

The difficult task of shell diving is captured in the imagery of many portable Andean artifacts, such as bowls, earspools, and textiles. Many of these images are similar, illustrating a boat with sailors holding cords attached to the divers in the water. Stone weights are suspended from the divers as they gather shells, and portrayals of Spondylus often emphasize their characteristic spines. The image to the right features a Chimú earspool, which was molded from gold-copper and silver alloys and depicts a shell diving scene. The rectangle in the upper half of the earspool is a boat with large sails, and birds reside at the top of the piece. Four divers swim beneath the boat and are near spiky eggshell-shaped shells.

Sections of ciudadelas, large compounds often reserved for the kings and elite individuals, were used as storage areas for shell artifacts, and the architecture and ornamentation of these structures symbolize the treasures of the sea. Los Buceadores (the Divers), a relief in Chan Chan in Ciudadela Uhle, displays imagery of a pair of figures in a tule boat, one of whom holds a paddle, and another pair of shell divers beneath the boat and connected to ropes. The relief also features a net-like semicircle, as well as spiny figures that represent shells.

Trade and Exchange
Much of the existing evidence for the use of shell in the Andes comes from archaeological discoveries and colonial documents and points to the abundance of shell-working, with the remains of shell workshops and artifacts uncovered in many sites in Peru. However, little evidence documents the movement of Spondylus from its source in Ecuador to workshops in Chan Chan. The archaeological record indicates that Chimor was an important center for the exchange of trade, and shell often traveled long distances from its geographic source to reach the empire of Chimor. The trade of Spondylus was integral to the expanding political power and economy of the Chimú. The shell was viewed as an exotic material, and the Chimor control of the exchange of the imported luxury good served as a means of political control, establishing and legitimizing the rule of the nobles through a religious and financial basis for power.

Little information exists about the means by which Spondylus was acquired and exchanged along trade routes, but many scholars have proposed various models for Spondylus movement. It is likely that the marine bivalve was traded either through independent merchants or state-administered long-distance trade, with a north-south exchange of the items.One of the first accounts of exchange of Spondylus is a report written by Spanish colonist Francisco Xerez, who was a member of the expedition led by Francisco Pizarro, and describes a raft of luxury goods, such as textiles, emeralds, and gold and silver objects, which were to be traded for Spondylus shells.

Scholars likewise disagree on the transportation methods of shells and whether they were exported via sea or land.Imagery in Andean pottery and reliefs exists that depicts llama caravans carrying shell, providing evidence that the transportation of shell was at least in part overland.

= Inca Architecture =

Rock Outcrops
The Inca frequently grafted structures onto rock outcrops, which served as stable foundations for larger architectural forms. Rather than masking the natural topography, the Inca used labor-intensive techniques to work the stone, such as "nibbling," or meticulously pecking away at stones to achieve a certain fit, to cooperate with, and even enhance, the existing features of the stone. While acknowledging the landscape, the techniques

These integrated stone outcrops signified a connection between the built and natural environments and served as a space for the conjoining of complementary ideas, such as the "order" of and "chaos."
 * "At Home with the Sapa Inca" -- Stella Nair

= Jade Use in Mesoamerica =

Jade Use
Things to add to Jade Use in Mesoamerica:
 * Think about how images are used as evidence and drawing attention to the images
 * Celt images and descriptions
 * Sound qualities of jade
 * Techniques and religious symbolism
 * Give examples of what types of objects made out of jade - types of figures and common iconography
 * Framing opening paragraph and sections in Mesoamerican context, rather than European context