User:Allsaho

Saho Land and People
The main abode for Saho people is Eritrea. However, there are also Saho tribes in Ethiopia. In Eritrea Sahos mainly live across eastern foot hills of Akeleguzai and Samhar region of Eritrea. These areas are now renamed since 1996 into two administrative regions known as (Southern) and (Northern Red Sea ) regions.

Saho history extends to thousands of years, if they are not the first; they definitely are among Horn Africia's longest-established peoples. For over three thousand years of their known history they have watched civilizations flourish and decay with their own lives. Unfortunately, no attempt has been made to document the very rich history and culture Sahos are endowed with either by Saho themselves or other interested scholars. Therefore, sources regarding social structure, mode of life, history and culture of Saho are at best scarce or nonexistent.

The information provided on this web is a modest attempt to bridge this gap, initiated by interested Saho individuals, with the aim of preserving Saho history and culture from being extinct and encourage Sahos’ and others who has scholarly interest in the subject to take an active interest in assisting with efforts to document Saho heritage, history and culture.

Since independence, Eritrea has not conducted national census to determine Eritrea’s population. Therefore, sources regarding Eritrea’s population and by extension Saho population is all based on estimate. However, it is acknowledged that Saho are the third largest ethnic group in Eritrea. Many Saho observers estimate Saho population as being a little over 10% of Eritrea’s estimated 3.1- 3.9 million inhabitants.

As we stated at the beginning of this article the overwhelming majority of Saho inhabit Eritrea but there are Saho tribes who reside along the border areas of Eritrea more specifically in Tigrai region of Ethiopia.

In Eritrea, Saho mainly dwell in the Eastern foothills of Akele-Saho (aka Akele-guzai) and Samhar occupying 60% or more of the landmass. Sahos’ are also found intermingled amongst Tigrinia speaking populace in parts of Eritrea’s highland regions (Akeleguzai, Seraye and Hamasein). They also intermingle with Tigre speaking tribes in Lowland regions such as Barka.

== Social Structure: ==

The social cohesion and organisation of Saho clans and sub clans is based on kinship and decent. The clans and sub-tribes trace their genealogical origin to a common ancestor. Tribes that belong to a common ancestor are defined as belonging to a common, Kisho, Mela or Are. Each sub-tribe is divided into numerous kinship groups known as Dik or Abusa, which usually bears the names of individuals, the founders of the lineage.

All Saho tribes share a common language, culture and way of life. However, not all Saho tribes have common origin or trace their lineage to a common ancestor. The earliest known Saho tribes, known as “Bado Ambalish” or bearers of land are believed to be; Kabota, Idda, Asa Bora, Gadafur etc.. These warrior tribes are now less prevalent and in some instances are almost extinct. The dominant Saho tribes today are perhaps conquerors of the earliest Saho tribes. However, the conquerors adopted Saho language and culture; other tribes came to settle among them in around 800-1000 A.C. to preach Islamic religion. They too gradually adopted the language and culture hence, became part of the fabric that make up Saho tribes of today.

Due to geographical position they occupy, significant of Saho speakers are bilingual. They commonly speak Saho & Tigrinya, Saho & Tigre or Saho & Afar and increasingly significant numbers of young people speak Saho & Arabic.

Saho History
Ancient Saho speaking people are descendants of ancient Kushites. The term Kushite derives from the ancient peoples of North East Africa, which started to live in this part of Africa since more than 5000 B.C., with their own culture and language. The ancient Kushite peoples are those who spoke languages of the Kushite branch of the Afro-Asiatic (also known as Hamito-Semitic) family. They are the indigenous peoples of the present day Eritrea, Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya.

The history of over 5000 years of Kushitic civilization is preserved through the interconnections of Kushitic culture and languages. The Kushitic languages are divided into 3 major subgroups. These include: (a) East Kushitic languages (Saho, Afar, Somali and Sidama), (b) Central Kushitic or Agaw language (such as Bilen ), (c) South Kushitic languages in Kenya and Tanzanya.

According to linguistics, the Kushites spoke historically closely related dialects of the same language and they all shared a common cultural heritage. For instance the present Saho and Afar languages are still very closely related and according to Dr Abdulkadir Salih, they share over 70% of linguistic relations. Similarly, Saho language shares many words and vocabularies with Oromo and Somali languages.

The modern day Kushites, such as descendants of ancient Saho speaking people, are descendants of ancient Kushites who ruled Egypt in 25th dynasty and played a central role in Africa's greatest and oldest civilization at Meroe, the present day northern Sudan and lower Egypt.

Ancient Saho speaking people, as descendents of ancient Kushites, have left strong traceable evidence of their over 5000 years of rich history.

The traceable evidence include ancient rock paintings, monuments steles, ruined building, ancient pottery … etc. Some of these are found in Saho land such as in (Qohaito, Kaskase, Adulis (Adola/Ado-Lai ), Balaw Kalaw, ruins of Matara ).

Ancestors of Saho people

Historians and anthropologists as yet to accurately determine the exact archeological time in which Kuchitic languages started to split until they become as separate languages as know in modern times. According to Bender and most scholars, the split of the Saho language from the rest of the East Kushitic language took place about four thousand years ago. It is believed that this split happened slowly and gradually over many centuries. Thus, Saho speaking ancestors started to become a separate ‘linguistic and ethnic group’ about four thousand years ago.

According to the oral traditions, the Idda, Kabota and Asa-bora are the most ancient Saho ancestors in the current Saho region. The Saho call these three tribes the guardians of the Saho land (Badho Ambalish or Badho Sugus in Saho language).

Oral traditions maintain that some Saho clans came from diverse geographical origins and all adopted Saho, as their common language and all shared a common cultural heritage. Some Saho clans affiliate their origins to Islamic dignitaries during Khilafa period including to one of the four Khalifas themselves. This should not be surprising, as well known in this region; peoples of the Horn of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula have a long history of human migration across the red sea, intermarriage, intensive linguistic, social and cultural exchange.

The people of Saho were known for their fierce opposition to any foreign invaders and colonial aggressors. Their oral history and poems tell many amazing stories of bravery and sacrifices they had offered over the last two centuries. They uncompromisingly and heroically defended their beloved land from repeated attempts of highland Abyssinian rulers to invade their land and had defeated Raas Araia and Raas Alula until the Italians invaded Eritrea in 1889.

The Saho, before the Italians’ occupation, were organised as clans, which have become federated into several major tribes. They had chiefs, their affairs being managed by councils of elders. This did not suit the Italians’ need for close control and accordingly they appointed chiefs in charge of each tribe: a measure, which made for administrative efficiency if not for popularity. These chiefs have been dismissed outright by the current government without introducing an alternative system.

Today, the risk of losing oral Saho history and heritage is greater than ever. It is like watching strong winds spreading great fire with little resistance hoping that we would be left with some of our possessions. Therefore there is an urgent call for spreading awareness and a massive responsibility upon every concerned individual and every organised Saho group of the current generation, wherever they are, to collate and document their ancestors’ history, however they can.

Historical towns in Saho land:

1) The port of Adolay (or Adulis in ancient geography)

In the 5th Century there was greater trade between north east region of Africa (see map below) and southern Arabia, mainly with the port of Saba. Adulis (Adola) became an important commercial centre in the region. Trade links increased and expanded from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean, with Egypt, Greece, and Rome, to the Black Sea, and to Persia, India, and China. By the 5th century BCE, the region was very prosperous, exporting ivory, gold dust, spices, and live elephants. It imported silver, gold, olive oil, and wine.

2) Hergigo (Dakano in Saho)

Oral traditions attribute the foundation of Hegigo to the Saho speaking group of Idda  who in some type of association with elements of the holey Muslim cal Bayt Shaykh Mahmud, based in Zula, settled in Hegigo. The historic traditions shed some light on the early history of Massawa’s inhabitants. Some of the Massawa families that claim to have been among the first inhabitants of the town belong to Hassab Allah and Bayt Shaykh Mahmud. The Adulay family, who is thought of by many contemporary Massawans as among the early settlers, came from Zula. This data coincides with traditions of the foundation of Hegigo by originally Saho-speaking elements moving from the Zula region.

In the 6th century, Aksum was powerful enough to add Saba on the Arabian Peninsula to her empire. At the end of the 6th century, the Persians pushed Aksum out of peninsula causing Aksum to decline.

3) Qohaito

This ancient urban city lies approximately 14-15 Kilometres southeast of Asa Dik (Adi Keih). Its position at the crossroads of the main communication axes between the Red Sea area in the North-East and mainland of Kaskase, Matara and Axum in the South, made it one of the most political centres of the Kingdoms of ancient civilizations in the region.

4) Saanafè/Senafe The ancient name for Senafe is Hakir. Senafe is also home to famous archaeological ruins of Balaw Kalaw. They are also known by nearby village called Matara. The ruins at Matara site are considered to be the third largest pre-Aksumite or Aksumite historical site.

A western visitor who saw Senafe described it as a scene from wonder land. That is because the city seats on very pleasant plains and is encircled by most striking mountains. Arab Tarika from North, Dorho Coma from east, Farkila and Saim Coma from South, Matara Coma from South West and Ain Senafefrom West are key features of the town.

Senafe with the backdrop of Saim Coma

The Kushite Civilisation

The Kushites belonged to a great civilization along the Upper Nile Valley during the second and first Millennium BC. They were the founders and the rulers of the 25th Dynasty in Egypt. The rise and the decline of the various Kushite kingdoms continued in various parts of North East Africa until the late 1880s. There are scientific indications that East Africa is a cradle of humanity whereas some prominent historians point out that North East African civilization predates Greek Classical Civilization.

The Kushitic civilization in the Upper Nile Valley of North East Africa reached its height during the second millennium BC. The Kushitic Kingdom located in Nubia survived well into the first millennium BC when it was finally defeated by the Nubian people. However, other historians argue that the Kushitic Kingdom flourished for six more centuries until the third century AD and made Meroe, the capital of its kingdom. On the other side, South East of Meroe, the Kingdom of Aksum was growing in power around the third century AD. In 350 AD, Axumite King Ezana was able to capture Meroe and undermined the Kushitic civilization until the Agaw (Zagwe), (Highland Kush Dynasty) recaptured it in 922 AD. The Kushitic speaking Agaw(Zagwe) dynasty ruled in North East Africa between 922 AD when Aksum declined, until 1270 AD.

Ancient beliefs of Kushites

The Kushites were followers of Amon (or Amun) who was the most prominent God in Nubia, and its surrounding regions. Most of the temples were built in honor of this God, including the largest two temples in Nubia; the Amon temples at Napata and the Amon temple at Meroe. Amun, whose name means the Invisible One, was usually depicted as a man wearing two tall plumes on his head, and holding a sceptre in his hand. His sacred animals were the ram and the goose, both symbols of virility - which was one of Amun's characteristics. His great temple at Karnak is a demonstration of his status as king of the gods.

Kushite kings frequently prayed to Amun(Amom) for military victories when fighting to conquer of Egypt:

The decline of Kushite Empire

During the hundred years of ruling Egypt, Kush had extensively interacted with, and had influence upon, the Near East and the Far East, in politics, economy, and cultures. The impact of such interaction is still waiting deeper investigations. Nonetheless, apparently the Kushite culture had not witnessed big differences in basic norms and traditions.

Kushite Pharaoh, Dynasty 25, ca. 713–664B.C

The golden age of Kush ended around 350 BC. The last known Kushite king to be buried under a Pyramid was Pharaoh Yesbokheamani. Since then grand building projects disappeared and large pyramids and temples seized to be established. The scarce archeological evidence suggests that after the fourth century BC, the kingdom of Kush had experienced extensive nomadic invasions from the surrounding deserts. In addition, the Kushite state used to endure some small-scale conflicts with the kingdom of Axum which was established around 300 BC.

Due to the dynamics of conflicts, migration, assimilation and other politico-demographic influences over the past seven millennia, the Kushitic population reduced to a small minority in Eritrea, Sudan, and Kenya while they are still majorities in Ethiopia, Djibouti and Somalia. In Ethiopia over 52% of the current population of 80 million are Kushitic peoples while almost the entire population in Somalia and Djibouti are Kushitic.

Since the late 1880s the majority of Kushites land in Eritrea and Ethiopia, has been annexed by the Abyssinian settlers and colonial invaders subjecting the Kushites to unrestrained economic exploitation and political subjugation for over 100 years. This resulted in putting the Kushites under huge restraints which led them primarily to focus their energy and human resources on fighting for survival and for defending their land from repeated aggressions of foreign invaders and colonial powers. Thus, nowadays the Kushites find themselves seen as minorities, excluded from participating in the political leadership, suffering great social, economic and political marginalization and injustice.

Saho and Ancient Civilisation
According to the World Heritage Convention, “Cultural heritage” is a monument, group of buildings or site of historical, aesthetic, archaeological, scientific, ethnological or anthropological value…” (UNESCO 2003).

Saho land in Eritrea is believed to have one of the highest densities of archaeological sites known to African continent. Most of all known Eritrean archaeological sites are located in Saho region; as such, this region could be considered a birth place from which ancient Eritrean history and identity has evolved.

Ancient rock paintings, monuments steles, ruined building, ancient pottery found in Saho region are some of the testaments to the richness and diversity of this particular region.

Adulis or Adu - Lai

The old Eritrean port known as Adulis is about 60 kilometres south of Massawa. It lies between the villages Zola and Afta, in the proximity of the larger locality Fodo. The original name for Adulis in Saho is probably "Adu Lai" meaning "white water" or " Ado - La" meaning white herd, later recorded as Adulis by Ptolemaic and Azuli by Arab traders who frequented the port. However, the name Ado-Lai, have more resonance, since there is another village in the hinterland still called Adu-Lai.

Adulis (Adola) No serious excavation has yet been made. However, Adulis is believed to be the oldest civilization site in Eritrea. Some Experts believes it was first settled in the mid -3 rd - sixth century BC. It was a major trade route between the interiors of pre-Aksumite, Aksumite Kingdom & other civilizations in the region, i.e. Egypt, Arabia (Sabaa), Persia & Indian subcontinent.

Egypt is the source of the earliest descriptions of the people that resided in the areas that is Eritrea and Ethiopia today. This area was known to the Egyptians as Punt. As early as the third millennium BCE, the Egyptian inscriptions indicate that they traded with people from the land of Punt, who they sometimes they also called "Gods' Land".

Land of Punt and Ado-Lai

Egyptians did sail south along the Red Sea to trade with people from Punt. Punt, to the Egyptians, could have meant the entire Red Sea region including Somalia. But artefacts found in Egypt indicate that Adulis has played a key role in trade with old Egypt. For Egyptians land of Punt was a commercial centre, from which they were able to import incense, ivory, ebony and gum.

Egyptian expedition to the Land of Punt They also imported the skins of giraffes, panthers and cheetahs that were worn by temple priests, and sometimes even live animals were imported. Because of the goods from Punt used by priests to adorn garden of the god, Amun. A stele in the mortuary temple of Amonhotep III (18 th Dynasty) records a speech delivered by

the god Amun, stating: "Turning my face to sunrise I created a wonder for you, I made the lands of Punt come here to you, with all the fragrant flowers of their lands, to beg your peace and breath the air you give."

The earliest recorded sailing expedition to land of Punt was taken by King

Saho Ra'a Fifth Dynasty (2465 -2325 BCE). But some experts believe trade with the two peoples could have started "as early as the First Dynasty (3100-2890 BCE). The Puntites themselves also sailed to Egypt and their products.

Although the actual location of land of Punt is still contested, according to some experts Eritrea has as good claim if not a better claim, as any of those nations who claim to be the Land of Punt. Fauna and flora ecologically coincide with northern Eritrea/Ethiopia and east-north-east Sudan. This identification is supported by later references to the rain on the Mountains of Punt draining into the Nile flood which thus excludes an identification of Punt in Somalia as has sometimes been suggested. It is believed Egypt-Punt trade "link ended after the mid" 12 th century BC. Why is yet unknown.

Qohaito:

"The site of Qohaito, positioned on top of the Qohaito plateau at an elevation of approximately 2,600m, contains many large mounds, elaborate monumental architecture, cistern-like features, and a large ancient dam and reservoir basin". ( Anfray 1981: Danielli and Marinelli 1912; Litman et al. 1913; Wenig 1997).

Qohaito "Qohaito appears to have been a garden city, with cultivated areas between the building complexes. There are dozens of these ruined complexes varying greatly in structure, size and depth; only further survey will reveal precisely the configurations and numbers of these futures on this landscape. There are also half a dozen column structures or temples on platform dispersed widely". (Berhe, Haile, The preservation of the cultural heritage of Eritrea, 9-15/October/ 2000).

Qohaito in Saho meaning “Rock” is one of the oldest and significant civilization site in Eritrea today. It is one of five Eritrean sites nominated for the UNESCO World Heritage List.

This ancient urban city lies approx. 14-15 Kilometres southeast of Asa Dik (Adi Keih). Its position at the crossroads of the main communication axes between the Red Sea area in the in the North-East and mainland of Kaskase, Matara and Axum in the South made it one of the most political centres of the Kingdom of ancient Eritrea.

Qohaito and local Saho children The city’s impressive large remains- cover an area of 2.5Km by 15 Km; so far only 20% of the ruins have been excavated. To the north the sandstone-hewn known locally as Egyptian Tomb can be detected (see image). So named not because its Egyptian origin has

been conclusively proven but because of the tomb's impressive dimensions. Inside the tomb carved on walls and facing each other are flower shaped symbol perhaps indicating some sort of religious or social significance of the person who was buried there.

Another historical feature which can be seen in Qouhaito today is the beautifully dressed masonry of Saphira Dam. (See image left).

The dam is over 60m long and is believed to date

back 1000 years. The wall of the dam is built of large rectangular blocks of stones; the largest measures 98cm * 48cm. Although there are indications of several other dams existed, only this dam still serves the local population as the main source of water.

Safira Dam Near Qohaito are several rock-art sites, including Awalu Galba rock shelter on the Awalu Guda plateau of Hainaba. The rock shelters measures approximately three meters in depth and 12 meters in length. On the walls of the shelter elaborate pictographs in red, white and black pigments can be observed. A number of pictographs have been destroyed by natural exfoliation and by chipping of images from the wall by the people. Cattle and possible human-like figures are depicted on rock shelter’s walls.

Kaskase

Kaskase located about 4 kilometres to the north of Senafe was one of the key city civilizations in pre-Aksumite period. However, none of the grandeur or glory of its past can be detected today. According to oral history

passed by older generation in Senafe, Kaskase was indeed, very important place. According to this history, it was ruled by a queen. Unfortunately, neither name of the queen or other details is remembered. However, artefacts found in Kaskase area and currently stored in national museum in Asmara, seem to corroborate the importance and the glorious past off Kaskase. Items recovered from the vicinity include; statues and several inscriptions which resembles South Arabian (Sabaean).

This small Sabaean - style sphinx from the 5 th-6 th century BCE was discovered in Kaskase region and currently sits in national museum in Asmara.

Obelisk of Kaskase The inscriptions on this Kaskase piece reads right to left on the first line and left to right on the second. Linguists state that many ancient languages used this writing method, called boustrophedon (plow-like), at various periods of the development of their written language.

Was Kaskase a local kingdom known by archaeologists as Kingdom of Damat or was it part of extended Sabaean Kingdom ?. Unfortunately, the answer to this question has to wait a while, since there is no enough evidence and no enough study has yet been conducted to unravel the past mystery of Kaskase.

Sanafè/ Senafe

The ancient name for Sanafe is Hakir. The name of the town was changed after a tribe migrated from Yemen settled at the foothills

of a local mountain now known as Ain Senafe. The tribe is still known as Senafe; hence the name of the tribe was given to the town. According to local history when the immigrants reached the northern peak of the mountain, they asked locals by saying Sanaa fen? Where is Sanaa (their home town?). The dormant volcanic rock where this conversation took place is still known as “Arab Tarika”, from the Arabic word “Arab Tarakna” perhaps indicating they had left Arabia.

Senafe with the backdrop of Ain Senafe and Matara Coma Senafe is also home to famous archaeological ruins of Balaw Kalaw. They are also known by nearby village called Matara. The ruins at Matara site are considered to be the third largest pre-Aksumite or Aksumite historical site.

Matara Artifacts A western visitor who saw Senafe described it as a scene from wonder land. That is because the city seats on very pleasant plains and is encircled by most striking mountains. Arab Tarika from North, Dorho

Coma from east, Farkila and Saim Coma from South, Matara Coma from South West and Ain Senafe from West are key features of the town.

Senafe with the backdrop of Saim Coma Balaw Kalaw:

The plan of the ruined city and its beautiful foundation walls (see image left) in some of the palace complexes indicated it is was abode to a sizeable bourgeois or middle-class community. Some of scattered ruins are believed to have been established around the fifth century BC.

The 4.68meter long stele found in Matara is unique in the whole of Eritrea. The sun over the crescent moon curved at the top of the stele is the symbol of Sabaean supreme God known as Almaqah (moon God).

As the god of Saba he was official god of the state."Almaqah" deity who was obviously worshipped by people of Senafe as well, is the destroyer, the god of heavy rains, storm and flood.

At the bottom of the stele non vocalised proto-Ghe'eze inscription is translated to "King Agheze dedicates this monument to his fore-fathers who have defeated the mighty people of Awe'alefene and Wetsebelan"?

Almaqah (Moon God) Sadly, now this beautiful monument lies shattered on the ground (see image left) as another victim of the war, after it was vandalised by advancing Ethiopian army following 1998 war between the two countries.

Massawa : The idda tribe of Saho are believed to be the original inhabitants of the city now known as Massawa. Saho name for Massawa is Mandar meaning city. The town of Dakano (meaning elephant) now known as Harkiko is believed to be where the city has started its life.