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Civilization of: India I. Geography & Climate A. Geography The people of ancient India lived in a land of extremes. The terrain was varied and often presented great challenges. Occasional extremes of weather such as droughts and monsoons were also part of life in this land. However, great civilizations developed and flourished amidst the rivers, mountains, plains and deserts of the subcontinent. Many rivers also flowed through ancient India making the land fertile. One of the main rivers to be used in ancient times was the Indus river in the north-west (what is now north-western India and Pakistan). It was on the banks of the Indus river that the earliest civilization in India to use writing, build large buildings and organise cities flourished for nearly one thousand years. Another important river in ancient India was the Ganga. Settlements, cities and towns developed on the banks of this powerful river from as early as prehistoric times. Climate The climate of India defies easy generalization, comprising a wide range of weather conditions across a large geographic scale and varied topography. Analyzed according to the Köppen system, India hosts six major climatic subtypes, ranging from desert in the west, to alpine tundra and glaciers in the north, to humid tropical regions supporting rain forests in the southwest and the island territories. Many regions have starkly different micro climates. The nation has four seasons: winter (January and February), summer (March to May), a monsoon (rainy) season (June to September), and a post-monsoon period (October to December).India's unique geography and geology strongly influence its climate; this is particularly true of the Himalayas in the north and the Thar Desert in the northwest. The Himalayas act as a barrier to the frigid katabatic winds flowing down from Central Asia. Thus, North India is kept warm or only mildly cold during winter; in summer, the same phenomenon makes India relatively hot. Although the Tropic of Cancer—the boundary between the tropics and subtropics—passes through the middle of India, the whole country is considered to be tropical. As in much of the tropics, monsoonal and other weather conditions in India are unstable: major droughts, floods, cyclones and other natural disasters are sporadic, but have killed or displaced millions. India's long-term climatic stability may be further threatened by global warming

1.Artistic Expression Jewlery and Makeup Bindi (dot on forehead) Traditionally a symbol of marriage (vivaha), but now worn by unmarried women. Ornaments or jewelry.Both men and women wore ornaments Gold ornaments are popular because the metal is believed to have the power purify anything it touches. Ornaments of gold and other metals, often combined with precious and semi-precious gems and beads, are popular with both men and women. Most ornaments are common across India, with variations in designs and material depending upon caste, religion, and geography. Gold is the most popular metal because it is believed to have the power to purify whatever it touches. For this reason, some gold ornament is usually worn against the skin at all times. Today ornaments are more popular with women than men, though, as paintings and sculptures attest men were once lavishly adorned too. In fact, the use of ornaments in India dates back to the ancient civilisations at Harrapa and Mohenjodaro. (See pictures of ancient gold and agate ornaments, bangles and rings, and a belt and a necklace and beaded hair ornaments worn by a man of Harrapa.) Traditionally, ornaments had economic significance for women. The ornaments given to her at her wedding constituted a daughter's inheritance from her father. Customarily land and other property was divided among the sons, though this no longer holds true. In addition, a bride's ornaments were financial security throughout her life. Nose pin: More common than a nose ring, both are symbols of purity and marriage, though today many unmarried girls wear this adornment. Necklace: These are popular across the country among girls and women of all ages. Necklaces are made of a variety of materials, ranging from glass beads to gold and diamonds. One special necklace, however, is the mangalasutra, worn only by married women. It is the Indian equivalent of the western wedding ring. Traditionally a woman wore it during her wedding ceremony and took it off only if her husband died. Bangles: Worn on the wrist, bangles are believed to be protective bands and women always wore them as symbolic guards over their husbands. As with other ornaments, bangles today are worn by women of all ages all over India and are made of silver, gold, wood, glass, and plastic, among other materials. Ear rings: Rings, studs and other ornaments worn in the ears are popular all over the country. In fact, a girl's ears are usually pierced before her first birthday. Other important ornaments are finger rings, toe rings and anklets. Rings for the fingers are again, of various materials and designs and worn by unmarried and married women. Since the ring has become a common adornment, it is no longer considered a symbol of marriage However, toe rings and anklets are still worn mostly by married women. Ornaments for the feet are usually made of silver because gold, being a 'pure' metal, was not supposed to be worn on the feet. This privilege was given only to women of royal families. In addition to these ornaments is the 'mangatika' or 'tikli'. This ornament, worn at the top of the forehead in the parting of the hair, is usually a small pendant on the end of a chain that is clasped to the hair. Although traditionally this ornament was also worn as a symbol of marriage, today it is not so commonly worn even by married women. Eye make-up (kohl?) eyeliner From the time a child is six days old, its mother applies kajal to its eyes and also a small black dot on the forehead to mar the child's beauty. This 'imperfection' is said to protect from evil. Sindoora - dot on forehead of woman indicating married status, power, protection for her husband. It is applied by the husband as part of wedding ceremony.

1.Social Structure In ancient India, society was divided into four parts (varnas): brahmins, kshatriyas, vaisyas, and sudras. The Rajputs eventually came to occupy the place in society of the kshatriyas. In that ancient era, this system was very fluid and flexible. Ibbetson writes in his book, "In the earlier Hinduism we find that, while caste distinctions were primarily based upon occupation, considerable license in this respect was permitted to the several castes, while the possibility of the individual rising [or falling] from one caste to another was distinctly recognized. The original intent of caste was to provide a convenient social structure to the Indian civilization, with the actions of an individual determining their rank in society. A parallel may be drawn to the West's social classification of people into different classes such as the middle class and the wealthy class. An individual's accumulation of wealth can easily propel them from one class to another. However, this basic Indian classification would eventually be expanded and intolerably abused. Different levels of status came to be associated with each caste, and changing one's status in life became virtually impossible. As a result, the caste system of today hardly represents its original intent and has lost much of its intended usefulness. In fact, the mere mention of the word "caste" nowadays brings negative connotations to many people's minds. Within the above framework, Ibbetson identifies two principles, the community of blood and the community of occupation (2). The community of occupation reflects one's caste. The community of blood reflects one's tribe. The Mair Rajputs are a tribe, as it is a community related by blood. That does not mean that all Mair Rajputs are related to one another. Instead, since marriages form bonds of blood, the Mair Rajputs traditionally marry only other Mair Rajputs. The caste of the Mair Rajputs eventually has come to be goldsmiths, because that is currently their predominant occupation.

IV. Communication A. Writting Over time, people living in India have used many different writing systems. These systems were generally developed record down different types of information as the need arose. The first Indian script, developed in the Indus Valley around 2600 B.C. is still undeciphered. Thus, it is still not possible to fully understand this civilization, as we have no readable records of their beliefs, history, rulers or literature. Later Indian scripts, like Brahmi and Kharosthi were developed to write both official and local languages. Great epics, royal inscriptions, religious texts and administrative documents were all written using these scripts. Through these sources we are able to learn about the literature, mythology, history and beliefs of ancient India. The most common writing material was the leaf of the palm, dried and cut into small strips. Lampblack was used as ink and usually applied with a reed pen. In the South, a sharp stylus was used to score the characters on the leaf and powdered charcoal was later rubbed into the depressions, making a much sharper image. Reading Books were made by stringing strips together through one or two holes made at one end. In places where palm leaves were unavailable, birch bark, strips of cotton or silk, and bamboo replaced them. Important notices were engraved on copper plates. Coinage e earliest civilisation of India, the Indus Valley civilisation, shows no evidence of coins being used as a means of barter. Coinage was probably introduced by Persian influence in the sixth century BCE during the Aryan domination.The earliest were punch-marked on silver blanks without any inscription. Copper coins were also known. The varied weights of the coins assigned them a certain value. Thus there were various denominations. However, only one type of gold coin is known to have been use in this time period. While the Greeks brought in their own currency, little changed in the make-up and material of coins until the age of the Guptas (ca. 320-540 CE) when lead and base silver were also used to make coins in the south.

V.       Essentials for Life Food Early Indians ate food that was easily available from nature. Fruits, wild berries, meat, fish, etc. were the main food items of the nomadic dwellers. With the advent of civilization, people settled and started to do farming. This led to the discovery of food crops, pulses, etc. Food in ancient India was cultivated in the fertile river valleys. Rice was their staple food that was eaten with cooked lentils, vegetables and meat. Wheat was used to make flat breads known as "Chapatti". The food habits of nearby countries also affected the food in ancient India. Cooking of chicken came to India from Thailand and mutton came from West Asia. The food pattern did not change with the arrival of the Aryans. With complex religious rituals taking the center stage, animal sacrifices peaked and more and more people turned vegetarians. Milk and milk products came much into use during ancient times. Rice was eaten with curd and yogurt. Cows were respected and worshipped hence people stopped eating beef. Most people in India became vegetarians and meat was consumed very rarely. Many spices were cultivated in India and were used in cooking for aroma and flavor. India flourished in the cultivation of spices and many of them were later exported to foreign lands. Cloths Ancient Indian garments generally used no stitching, even though Indians did have needles and knew about sewing. Most clothes were ready for wear as soon as they left the loom. The Dhoti, the Scarf or Uttariya, and the Turban, have never really disappeared from any part of India. Likewise, for women, the Dhoti or the Sari as the lower garments, combined with a Stanapatta or breast-band for covering the breasts, forms a basic ensemble, and once again consists of garments that do not have to be stitched, the breast-garment being simply fastened in a knot at the back. And the Dhoti or the Sari worn covering both legs at the same time or, in the alternative, with one end of it passed between the legs and tucked at the back in the fashion that is still prevalent in large area of India. Indian men and women for these garments in the usually hot Indian climate. - dhoti when he speaks of 'turbans used for trousers', and a kaupina when he is speaking of 'a rag of two fingers' breadth bound over the loins. Housing When constructing a place to live, ancient Indus inhabitants created houses that stood one or two stories tall. The materials used to fashion these abodes were brick that was baked in the sun. When it came to their roofs, they were flat and everyone possessed some of the same designs. Homes were built about a courtyard. All of the windows of the local residences faced onto the courtyard. When constructing the outside walls, the ancient Indus chose not to add any windows. Each home had some of their own private facilities. This was seen in the drinking wells and bathrooms attached to the houses. Just when you thought that ancient civilizations were not advanced, you should note the ancient Indus pipe system. Clay pipes were built from the bathroom area, which led to a sewer that was located beneath their streets. The drainage from the sewers was transported under the city into rivers, streams and other bodies of water located nearby.

VI. Recreation Sports The history of sports in India dates to thousands of years ago, and numerous games, including chess, wrestling, and archery, are thought to have originated there. Contemporary Indian sport is a diverse mix, with traditional games, such as kabaddi and kho-kho, and those introduced by the British, especially cricket, football (soccer), and field hockey, enjoying great popularity. Kabaddi, primarily an Indian game, is believed to be some 4,000 years old. Combining elements of wrestling and rugby,

VII. Customs and Beliefs A.    Buddha In about the sixth century B.C. Siddhartha Gautama was born into a royal family. When he was a young adult his experiences with the outside world drove him to seek out a greater understanding of life and spiritual fulfilment.Through seeking guidance and meditation, Siddhartha achieved Enlightenment. From that point, he was known as the Buddha, which means 'Enlightened One'. For the rest of his life, the Buddha travelled great distances teaching people about one path to salvation. After the Buddha's death, his pupils continued to spread his teachings. Buddhism developed at a time when Hinduism, the most widespread religion in India, had become tightly controlled by priests and the upper classes. Buddhism offered hope and access to spiritual understanding and satisfaction to ordinary people. B.    Hinduism The earliest records of Hindu gods, goddesses and Hindu beliefs were first written down in about the fourth century A.D. However, by this time, there was already a strong oral tradition which supported these beliefs. The early Hindu epics and myths help us to understand the evolution of the gods and goddesses and the development of beliefs which form the basis of the modern Hindu religion. 1.    Brahma ( God of Hinduism ) Brahma is the Hindu god (deva) of creation and one of the Trimurti, the others being Vishnu and Shiva. He is not to be confused with the Supreme Cosmic Spirit in Hindu Vedanta philosophy known as Brahman. Also, in Sanskrit Grammer, Brahman is Nominative Singular of generic word Brahman, as Aatma is Nominative Singular for Aatman. Brahaman and Aatman are same in Vedanta Philosphy, the Para-Aatma (Supersoul) and Jeeva Aatma (Individual Soul) are Brahman. His consort is Saraswati, the goddess of learning. Brahma is often identified with Prajapati, a Vedic deity. C.    Vishnu ( The Preserver ) He is most famously identified with His avatars, or incarnations of God, most especially Krishna and Rama. Additionally, another important name for Vishnu is Narayana. D.    Shiva (Destroyer) Shiva is considered to be the supreme deity in Shaivism, a denomination of Hinduism. Many Hindus such as those of Smarta tradition are free to accept various manifestations of the divine as their chosen deity for worship, and those who prefer Shiva are called Shaivas. Shaivism, along with Vaisnava traditions that focus on Vishnu, and Sakta traditions that focus on the Goddess (Devi) are three of the most influential denominations in Hinduism. 1.    Attributes of Shiva Third Eye: Shiva is often depicted with a third eye with which he burned Desire (Kama) to ashes. Serpents: Shiva is often shown garlanded with a snake. Crescent: Shiva bears on his head the crescent of the fifth day (panchami) moon. This is placed near the fiery third eye and this shows the power of Soma, the sacrificial offering, which is the representative of moon. It means that Shiva possesses the power of procreation along with the power of destruction.The moon is also a measure of time; thus the Crescent also represents his control over time. Thus Shiva is known by the names of Somasundara and Chandrashekara. Sacred Ganga: Ganga, the holiest of the holy rivers, flows from the matted hair of Shiva. Shiva allowed an outlet to the great river to traverse the earth and bring purifying water to human beings. The flowing water is one of the five elements which compose the whole Universe and from which earth arises. Ganga also denotes fertility one of the creative aspect of Shiva. Drum: A small drum shaped like an hourglass is known as a "damaru". This is one of the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing representation known as Nataraja. A specific hand gesture (mudra) called damaru-hasta (Sanskrit for "damaru-hand") is used to hold the drum. This drum is particularly used as an emblem by members of the Kapalika sect. Vibhuti: Vibhuti is three lines of ashes drawn on the forehead that represents the essence of our Being, which remains after all the malas (impurities of ignorance, ego and action) and vasanas (likes and dislikes, attachments to one's body, world, worldly fame, worldly enjoyments, etc.) have been burnt in the fire of knowledge. Hence vibhuti is revered as the very form of Shiva and signifies the Immortality of the soul and manifested glory of the Lord. Ashes: Shiva smears his body with ashes (bhasma). Some forms of Shiva, such as Bhairava, are associated with a very old Indian tradition of cremation-ground asceticism that was practiced by some groups who were outside the fold of brahmanic orthodoxy. These practices associated with cremation grounds are also menteioned in the Pali canon of Theravada Buddhism. One epithet for Shiva is "Inhabitant of the cremation ground" referring to this connection. Tiger skin: He is often shown seated upon a tiger skin. Elephant and Deer Skin: Shiva also wears elephant skins. Similarly deer represent the jumping of minds (flickering mind). Shiva wears deer skin which indicates that he has controlled the mind perfectly. Trident: (Sanskrit: Trishula) Shiva's particular weapon is the trident. Nandi, the Bull, is his Vahana (Sanskrit for vehicle). Lingam:Shiva is often worshipped in the form of a lingam.These are depicted in various forms. Mount Kailasha in the Himalayas is his traditional abode. He is often represented as immersed in deep meditation. He is said to eradicate Kama (sexual desire), Moha (material desire) and Maya (mundane thoughts) from his devotees' minds.