User:Aminawilliams/sandbox

Health in Texas
I will work on adding a “Health” section to the “Texas” article on Wikipedia. This article is ranked as GA-class and has been rated as high importance within the scope of WikiProject United States. Unfortunately, the current “Healthcare” (paragraph 10) section is not up to par. While all parts of the existing “Healthcare” section are well-cited, the topics covered are not related to healthcare. In its current state, it briefly mentions obesity and maternal mortality – two topics that belong in a separate “Health” section. The proposed “Health” section would cover relevant health-related topics in Texas as well as link to other Wikipedia articles, such as the Maternal Mortality in Texas article and the Texas Department of State Health Services article. I also plan to link to articles concerning different health conditions.

I have posted a brief proposal on the talk pages of the Texas article and the WikiProject United States page. I am waiting for feedback from other Wikipedia contributors.

Ideas for introduction to section

 * Low prevalence of smoking
 * Low drug death rate
 * Low cancer death rate
 * High percentage of uninsured population
 * High prevalence of obesity
 * Low number of mental health providers

Potential Sources
10.2.1 Obesity

The current healthcare section in the Texas article mentions obesity

The health and healthcare sections in many states’ articles mention obesity specifically, so I feel this is an important topic to discuss. I plan to use health reports to write about statistics and trends in Texas. I will use scholarly articles to cover obesity policy responses in Texas and various trends/disparities.

References:

Ory, M. G., Nichols, D., Dickerson, J. B., Madsen, K. K., Dowdy, D. M., Menedez, T., Miller, C., Hoelscher, D. M. (2013). Creating a Tipping Point: Texas Obesity Policy Actions in Review, 2000-2010. ''Progress in Community Health Partnerships: Research, Education, and Action, 7(4), 419-427. John Hopkins University Press.'' Retrieved September 19, 2018

He, J. & Lu, Y. (2017). The relationship between obesity and socioeconomic status among Texas school children and its spatial variation. Applied Geography 79, 143-152. Retrieved September 19, 2018

10.2.2 Tobacco use

I will begin with statistics about tobacco use in Texas as compared to the U.S. I will also include statistics specifically about e-cigarette use, as that is becoming a hot topic lately. I will use scholarly articles to explain trends and patterns in use. I will also include information on advertisements and other things that influence people to use tobacco products.

References:

Agaku, I. T., King, B. A., Husten, C. G., Bunnel, R., Ambrose, B. K., Hu, S. S., Holder-Hayes, E., Day, H. R. (2014). Tobacco Product Use Among Adults – United States, 2012-2013. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 63(25), 542-547. Center for Disease Control. Retrieved September 19, 2018.

Dal Cin, S., Stoolmiller, M., & Sargent, J.D. (2012). When movies matter: Exposure to smoking in movies and changes in smoking behavior. Journal of Health and Communication, 17(1), 76-89. Retrieved on September 19, 2018

Giovino, G. A. (2002). Epidemiology of tobacco use in the United States. Oncogene, 21, 7326-7340. Retrieved September 19, 2018

10.2.3 Alcohol use

I will begin with statistics about alcohol use in Texas as compared to the U.S. For example, in 2013, 19% of Texas adults reported binge drinking. I will use scholarly articles to explain trends and patterns in use. I will also include studies on advertisements and other things that influence alcohol use.

References:

Center for Disease Control. (2014). Prevention Status Report. Retrieved September 19, 2018

Galvan, F. H., Ceatano, R. (2003). Alcohol Use and Related Problems Among Ethnic Minorities in the United States. Alcohol Research and Health, 27(1), 87-94. Retrieved September 19, 2018

Maxwell, J. C., Tackett-Gibson, M., Dyer, J. (2006). Substance use in urban and rural Texas school districts. ''Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy. 13(4), 327-339.'' Retrieved September 19, 2018

Moreno, Megan A. (2011). Media Influence on Adolescent Alcohol Use. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 160(7), 680. Retrieved September 19, 2018

10.3 Maternal Health

I will use this section to link to the existing Maternal Healthcare in Texas article.

References:

Maternal healthcare in Texas. (2018). Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_healthcare_in_Texas

10.4.1 Rates of infant mortality

To begin the infant health section, I will cite recent statistics concerning infant mortality in Texas. In 2016, 5.6% of Texas babies died before the age of one. This is due to a variety of factors, many of which have to do with race and socioeconomic status. I will use scholarly articles to explore that further, especially because Texas has elevated rates when compared to the rest of the country.

References:

Callaghan, W. M., MacDorman, M. F., Rasmussen, S. A., Qin, C., Lackritz, E. M. (2006). The Contribution of Preterm Birth to Infant Mortality Rates in United States. Pediarics, 118(4). Retrieved September 19, 2018

Hogue, C. J., Hargraves, M. A. (1993). Class, race, and infant mortality in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, (83)1, 9-12. Retrieved September 19, 2018

Texas Department of State Health Services. (2017). Healthy Texas Babies Data Book. Retrieved on September 19, 2018

10.4.2 Common complications

The two most common causes of infant mortality are low birth weight and preterm birth. In 2016, 8.4% of Texas babies were born with low birth weight and 10.4% were born prematurely. I plan to briefly cover the common causes of low birth weight and preterm birth, all of which connect back to the mother’s health. I will also use scholarly articles to discuss outcomes and long-term effects.

References:

Hack, M., Klein, N. K., Taylor, H. G. (1995). Long-Term Developmental Outcomes of Low Birth Weight Infants. The Future of Children, 5(1), 176-196. Retrieved September 19, 2018

Luu, T. M., Ment, L. R., Schneider, K. C., Katz, K. H., Allan, W. C., Vohr, B. R. (2009). Lasting effects of preterm birth and neonatal brain hemorrhage at 12 years of age. Pediatrics, 123(3). Retrieved September 19, 2018.

Texas Department of State Health Services. (2017). Healthy Texas Babies Data Book. Retrieved on September 19, 2018

10.4.3 Vaccinations

After briefly describing the generally recommended vaccination schedule, I will add statistics about vaccination coverage in Texas. For example, in 2016 70% of children age 35 months in Texas have completed their recommended vaccination schedule. After referring to statistics, I will refer to academic research that attempts to explain certain trends in the vaccination rates in Texas specifically. These trends are largely based off of race, socioeconomic status, and geographic location.

References:

Texas Department of State Health Services. (2016). National Immunization Survey – Vaccination Coverage Levels. Retrieved on September 19, 2018

Luman, E. T., Barker, L. E., Shaw, K. M. (2005). Timeliness of Childhood Vaccinations in the United States. JAMA, 293(10), 1204-1211. Retrieved September 19, 2018.

Wooten, K. G., Luman, E.T., Barker, L. E. (2007) Socioeconomic Factors and Persistent Racial Disparities in Childhood Vaccination. American Journal of Health Behavior, 31(4), 434-445. Retrieved September 19, 2018

Article Edits
Copied from from Texas

Notwithstanding the concentration of elite medical centers in the state, The Commonwealth Fund ranks the Texas healthcare system the third worst in the nation. Texas ranks close to last in access to healthcare, quality of care, avoidable hospital spending, and equity among various groups. Causes of the state's poor rankings include politics, a high poverty rate, and the highest rate of illegal immigration in the nation. In May 2006, Texas initiated the program "code red" in response to the report the state had 25.1 percent of the population without health insurance, the largest proportion in the nation.

Obesity
Obesity has quickly become a major health issue in Texas. In 2017, 33.6% of Texas adults were obese as compared to 29.9% of U.S. adults. In 2000 21.7% of adults were obese and in 1990 only 10.7% of adults were obese. In 2016, 33% of 10-17 year olds in Texas were obese. When separated out by gender, 34.6% of Texas females and 32.8% of Texas males were obese. When separated out by race, 31% of White adults, 41.7% of Black adults, and 37.8% of Hispanic adults were obese in Texas in 2016. Research shows that an increase in household income is correlated with a decrease in obesity rates. There are educational achievement patterns as well - 39% of the Texas population with less than a high school education was obese while only 23% of college graduates were obese. Living in a rural area in Texas is also correlated with higher obesity rates.

Consequences of obesity
Obesity causes several chronic diseases including heart disease and diabetes. The three leading causes of death in Texas - heart disease, stroke, and cancer - are all linked to obesity. Additionally, obesity can cause type 2 diabetes, arteriosclerosis, and hypertension. In 2010, Texas saw 1,261,654 cases of heart disease and is predicted to see 5,688,482 cases in 2030. In 2010, Texas saw 1,962,059 cases of diabetes and is predicted to see 2,851,697 cases in 2030. In 2010, Texas saw 4,300,252 cases of hypertension and is predicted to see 5,689,509 cases in 2030. In 2010, Texas saw 328,379 cases of obesity-related cancer and is predicted to see 810,806 cases in 2030.

Obesity also has substantial impacts on the economy in Texas. Obesity costs Texas businesses $9.5 billion annually. 41% of this is due to obesity-related healthcare costs, 17% is due to absenteeism, and 37% is due to presenteeism.

Obesity treatment
Effective treatment for obesity is known to be expensive and difficult. For childhood obesity, programs tend to focus on creating lifestyle changes including a healthier diet and more exercise. Studies show that obesity treatment for children should aim more at changing the behavior of the family as a whole, especially the parents. Weight loss programs for children in Texas have had limited success in reducing weight. Only 20% of children finish the program and many of them are likely to gain the weight back later on. For adults, surgery is an effective long-term treatment but it comes with several risks and complications.

Obesity prevention
Environmental factors play a large role in obesity rates. Studies have shown that people who live in the same socioeconomic contexts in Texas, regardless of race, tend to have similar rates of obesity. Generally speaking, encouraging healthy habits, raising awareness, and educating people about portion sizes and nutritious requirements can help prevent obesity. Childhood prevention is key - a child who was overweight at 12 years of age has a 75% chance of being overweight as an adult.

Obesity policy
In 2003, the Texas School Nutrition Policy Launch set nutrition standards with the intentions of discouraging obesity. This policy lowered the availability of foods of minimal nutritional value in schools, limited portion sizes, limited trans fats, and limited fried foods. Texas has also required early childhood education programs to encourage breastfeeding, provide drinking water access, and provide daily physical activity. The state also has a fund specifically for financing healthy food. In 2013, the Obesity Prevention Program was created after merging the Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Obesity Prevention (NPAOP) and Worksite Wellness Programs. This program supports healthy eating, physical activity, and policies that promote healthier lifestyles.

Alcohol Use
The most commonly abused substance in Texas is alcohol. The rate of binge drinking in males in Texas is comparable to that of males in the United States. In 2017, 22.4% of adult males in Texas reported binge drinking, as compared to 22.1% of males in the United States. Less than 12% of females adults in Texas reported binge drinking. Alcohol abuse and alcoholism can lead to a variety of health issues including liver damage, heart problems, cancer, and depression. Further, 61% of high school students in Texas have tried alcohol and 17% of Texas high school students had their first drink before the age of 13. Research shows that adolescents who see alcohol use in advertisements, television shows, and movies are more likely to start drinking alcohol at a younger age. Drinking at a young age is correlated with long-term alcohol abuse.

Legislative Responses
The Texas Ignition Interlock Law went into effect during September 2015. This law requires judges to order ignition interlocks for all drunk-drivers with a Blood Alcohol Level of 0.15% or greater. Since the passing of this law, the drunk driving related death rate in Texas has decreased by 8.5%.

The Trust for America's Health ranked Texas 15th highest in adult obesity, with 27.2 percent of the state's population measured as obese. The 2008 Men's Health obesity survey ranked four Texas cities among the top 25 fattest cities in America; Houston ranked 6th, Dallas 7th, El Paso 8th, and Arlington 14th. Texas had only one city, Austin, ranked 21st, in the top 25 among the "fittest cities" in America. The same survey has evaluated the state's obesity initiatives favorably with a "B+". The state is ranked forty-second in the percentage of residents who engage in regular exercise.

Texas has the highest maternal mortality rate in the developed world, and the rate by which Texas women died from pregnancy related complications doubled from 2010 to 2014, to 23.8 per 100,000. A rate unmatched in any other U.S. state or economically developed country.

Infant health
Texas has the seventh highest birth rate in the United States, with nearly 400,000 babies born each year. Over half of all Texas births are paid by Medicaid, totaling over $2.2 billion per year in birth and delivery-related services for mothers and infants.

Rates of infant mortality
For decades the infant mortality rate in Texas was higher than the nationwide rate but that gap has slowly closed. In 2017, the infant mortality rate in Texas was identical to the nationwide rate: 5.9 deaths per 1,000 live births. This rate is not identical across the state of Texas and studies have found significant disparities between zip codes. For example, the 76164 zip code has an infant mortality rate of 12.3 deaths per 1,000 live births while the neighboring 76107 zip code has a rate of 1.8 deaths per 1,000 live births. Additionally, Black families in Texas are disproportionately burdened by these rates. In 2015, the infant mortality rate for Black babies in Texas was 10.9 deaths per 1,000 births. These disparities can be explained by factors such as socioeconomic status, air pollution, and access to health care.

Common complications
Studies have found that infant mortality is usually caused by birth defects, pre-term birth, low birth weight, Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, and pregnancy complications. The average amount spent in the first year of life for a preterm birth with major complications (excluding extreme prematurity) is $19,059, and $4,019 for a preterm birth without major complications compared to $410 for an uncomplicated, term birth.

Preterm birth
A birth is considered preterm when it takes place more than 3 weeks before the estimated due date. Preterm birth rates in Texas are consistently higher than the nationwide rate. In 2016, 10.4% of live births in Texas were preterm. The rate for Black mothers specifically was elevated - 13.6%. Numerous factors have been associated with premature birth, including lack of prenatal care,  race, obesity, smoking, and even air pollution.

Low birth weight
A low birth weight is less than 2500 grams. The rate of low birth weight in Texas has always been higher than the nationwide rate. In 2016, 8.4% of live births in Texas had a low birth weight. The rate for Black mothers specifically was 13.5%. Babies of mothers who do not get prenatal care are 3 times more likely to have a low birth weight and 5 times more likely to die than those born to mothers who do get care. As for long-term complications, low birth weight babies are at a higher risk for cerebral palsy, blindness, deafness, and developmental delay.

Prenatal care
Prenatal care is the best way to prevent preterm births and low birth weight babies. Unfortunately, in 2016 only 65% of pregnant women in Texas had access to prenatal care in their first trimester. Women being unaware of their pregnancies, economic hardship due to inability to work during pregnancy, lack of knowledge or access to health services, and difficulty finding transportation are contributing factors to this alarmingly low rate. Texas has also seen significant disparities in who receives prenatal care - 75% of White women and only 55% of Black women received prenatal care during their first trimester. Although women covered by Medicaid are supposed to automatically transition into the Healthy Texas Women program for postpartum coverage, this transition does not always take place.

Vaccinations
The recommended 4:3:1:3:3:1:4 vaccination schedule for children ages 19-35 months is designed to protect infants and children early in life when they are the most vulnerable. This schedule is recommended by the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. It protects against diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, polio virus, measles, mumps, rubella, Hib, hepatitis B, varicella, and pneumonia. In 2017, 67.8% of children age 35 months in Texas completed their recommended vaccination schedule. The highest individual vaccine rate was for the polio virus: 93.1% of children age 35 months in Texas received this vaccine. The lowest individual vaccine rate was for hepatitis A: 62.6% of children age 35 months in Texas received this vaccine. Some children are under-vaccinated due to issues with accessing preventative care, vaccine delivery, or intentional refusal to complete the series. Studies have shown that White married parents with higher socioeconomic status are the most likely to delay or refuse vaccines. The state has started to address this issue by implementing ImmTrac, a vaccination record system that is available at no cost at all.