User:Amlftwix/sandbox

Article Evaluation- Kin Selection
Overall the article is very clear but I believe that may be due to the fact that I have previous knowledge on many of the subjects in which are discussed. Within the article, I felt that the author assumed that a previous knowledge of many of the words discussed would be had, and I felt more definitions and examples would have increased the clarity of the article, especially for those who may just be learning about a subject.

However some examples given, such as the one given in the Hamilton's Rule section greatly aided in the execution of the article. This example both related to the definitions proposed in the first section, as well as related it back to the equation which was the focus of the 'Hamiltons rule' section.

In relation to bias and tone, the article seems very neutral. No particular section or explanation is represented to be superior, and the whole article is related and is tied together without setting a particular negative or positive tone towards the concepts or the scientists in which contributed to the topics being discussed.

Of the sources in which I clicked on and investigated, all of them worked. In addition, these pages were all legitimate sources, either of scientific articles or of explanations of topics which themselves had legitimate citations. This leads to me believe the sources in which were used in the creation of the article are of good scientific merit and are unbiased.

This article s a part of the Genetics WikiProject. It does however only have a C-class rating, indicating that it still needs work in order to be complete. In the talk section, it seems there has been previously fixed problems about neutrality, but they seem to have been resolved (in 2013).

Assignment- Apostatic Selection
Potential References

1.Hubbard, S., Cook, R., Glover, J., & Greenwood, J. (1982). Apostatic Selection as an Optimal Foraging Strategy. Journal of Animal Ecology, 51(2), 625-633. doi:10.2307/3987 https://www.jstor.org/stable/3987?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents

2. Exploring Apostatic Selection http://www.nature.com.qe2a-proxy.mun.ca/articles/hdy197067.pdf

3. Apostatic Selection on Prey that Match the Background https://onlinelibrary-wiley-com.qe2a-proxy.mun.ca/doi/epdf/10.1111/j.1095-8312.1984.tb00140.x

4. Optimal apostatic selection: how should predators adjust to variation in prey frequencies? https://www-sciencedirect-com.qe2a-proxy.mun.ca/science/article/pii/S0003347208004934

5. Apostatic selection by humans searching for computer-generated images on a colour monitor http://www.nature.com.qe2a-proxy.mun.ca/articles/hdy198850.pdf

6. The role of learning by a predator, Rivulus hartii, in the rare‐morph survival advantage in guppies https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jeb.12251

7. Frequency‐dependent seed predation by rodents on Sonoran Desert winter annual plants https://esajournals-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.qe2a-proxy.mun.ca/doi/full/10.1002/ecy.2066

8. Predatory fitness increases with selectivity for odd prey https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982212003156

9. The Evolution of Color Polymorphism: Crypticity, Searching Images, and Apostatic Selection https://www-annualreviews-org.qe2a-proxy.mun.ca/doi/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.38.091206.095728

10 Evidence for Apostatic Selectoin by Wild Passerines .https://www-nature-com.qe2a-proxy.mun.ca/articles/220501a0.pdf

11.The role of rare morph advantage and conspicuousness in the stable gold‐dark colour polymorphism of a crater lake Midas cichlid fish https://besjournals-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.qe2a-proxy.mun.ca/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2656.12693

Rough Draft
Note- anything in bold will be my contribution to the article

* everything transferred to article by 2:15 pm on Nov 18/18

= Apostatic selection = Apostatic selection is a form of negative frequency-dependent selection. It describes the survival of individual prey animals that are different (through mutation) from their species in a way that makes it more likely for them to be ignored by their predators. It operates on polymorphic species, species which have different forms. In apostatic selection, the common forms of a species are preyed on more than the rarer forms, giving the rare forms a selective advantage in the population. It has also been discussed that apostatic selection acts to stabilize prey polymorphism.

Apostatic selection was used in 1962 by Bryan Clarke in reference to predation on polymorphic grove snails and since then it has been used interchangeably with negative frequency-dependent selection. The behavioural basis of apostatic selection was initially ignored, but eventually established by A.B Bond (3).

Apostatic selection can also apply to the predator if the predator has various morphs. There are multiple concepts that are closely linked with apostatic selection. One is the idea of prey switching, which is another term used to look at a different aspect of the same phenomenon, as well as the concept of a search image. Search images are relevant to apostatic selection as it is how a predator is able to detect an organism as a possible prey. Apostatic selection is important in evolution because it can sustain a stable equilibrium of morph frequencies, and hence maintains large amounts of genetic diversity in natural populations.

'''It is important to note however, that a rare morph being present in a population does not always mean that apostatic selection will occur, and the rare morph could be targeted at a higher rate. From a predatory view, being able to select for rare morphs actually increases its own fitness (8).'''

Effects of Apostatic Selection and Polymorphisms on Populations
'''In relation to apostatic selection, it has also been determined that apostatic selection causes stabilization of prey polymorphisms, and this is caused by limitations of the predators behaviours (9). Essentially since the common prey type is more abundant, they should be able to produce more offspring and grow exponentially, at a much faster rate then those with the rare morph since they are in much smaller numbers. However, due to the fact that the common morph is preyed upon more frequently, it diminish the exponential rate that they are expected to reproduce in, thus maintaining the population in stable amounts of common and rare morphs (9).'''

Search image
'''A search image is what an individual uses in order to detect their prey. For the predator to detect something as prey, it must fit their criteria. The rare morph of a species may not fit the search image, and thus not be seen as prey. This gives the rare morphs an advantage, as it takes time for the predator to learn a new search image (6).Search image shift require multiple encounters with the new form of prey, and since a rare morph is typically not encountered multiple times, especially in a row the prey gets left undetected.''' An example of this is how a Blue tit searches for insect prey using a search image, leaving scarcer types of prey untouched. Predatory birds such as insect-eating tits (Parus) sometimes look only for a single cryptic type of prey even though there are other equally palatable cryptic prey present at lower density. Luuk Tinbergen supposed that this was because the birds formed a search image, a typical image of a prey that a predator can remember and use to spot prey when that image is common. Having a search image can be beneficial because it increases proficiency of a predator in finding a common morph type.

Environmental Mechanisms
'''In order for apostatic selection to occur, and for the rare morph to have the advantage a variety of criteria needs to be met. First, there needs to be polymorphism present. In addition, the prey present can not be in equal proportions, since then there would not be a benefit to be able to detect either one (4). This is related to frequency dependent predation, where as the predator obtains the greatest advantage from having a search image for the most common type of prey. This causes the most common form of the prey is the most vulnerable (7). Changes in prey detection of predators occurs, but the speed in which it occurs and the flexibility a predators search image in dependent on the environment.'''

'''If the frequency of the different prey types is continuously changes, the predator is not able to change their behavior at a rate in which will provide an advantage (4). In these situations, the predators who show a more flexible behaviour and have a more broad search image are able to survive. In relation to apostatic selection, large changes in prey frequencies decreases the magnitude of the advantage of the rare morph if their predators have a flexible search image. (4). Also, the high changes in polymorphism frequencies can be an advantage to the prey with the rare morph. This is because the predators without the flexibility of their search image would have to have many encounters with the rare morph to change its search image (4). Predators need multiple consistent encounters with a prey in order to form its search image around it.'''

'''Apostatic selection is also dependent on temporal variation. Since long periods of time are required for natural selection to act on predators, their degree of flexibility in their search image can not be changed over a short time frame (4). Therefore quickly arising rare morphs favors apostatic selection since the predators are not able to change their behavior and search image in that time frame. This is yet another biological process that is a victim to evolutionary time delay.'''

'''The predators are more quickly to adapt and decrease apostatic selection when a drastic and abrupt change to the prey frequencies occur (4). This does not change the flexibility of the predators, but elicits a very high speed in the change of the search image (4).'''

Apostatic selection is most strong in environments in which the prey with the rare morphism match the background (3).

Behavioural Basis of Apostatic Selection
'''Most of the work done of the behavioural basis of apostatic selection was done by A.B Bond. It has been suggested that for frequency dependent predation, the amount of encounters is what shapes the learning of the predator.These ideas are based on the assumption that when the predator is learning foraging behaviour, they are going to obtain the common form more frequently. Since the predator is going to learn what is most frequently and commonly captured, the most common morph is what is learned (3). This concludes that their foraging behaviour is shaped by this learned preference, thus causing apostatic selection and a fitness benefit to the morphs (3). From this, it was concluded that this search image formation and adaption is the mechanism that drives the most common prey type to be more easily distinguished from the environment, and thus be eaten more frequently.'''

Experimental evidence
Various types of experiments have been done to look into apostatic selection. Some involve artificial prey because it is a lot easier to control external variables in a simulated environment, though using wild specimens increases the studies external validity. Often a computer screen simulation program is used on animals, often birds of prey, to detect for selection. Another type looks into how apostatic selection can focus on the predator as well as the prey because predator plumage polymorphism can be another example of how apostatic selection works in a population. They hypothesized that a mutant predator morph will become more abundant in a population due to apostatic selection because the prey will not be able to recognize it as often as the common predator morph. . '''Apostatic selection has been observed in both humans and animals, proving that it is not exclusive to lower level organisms, and the cognition it uses is applicable to all organisms in which can display learning. Though a lot of this work has been experimental and lab controlled, there are some examples of it happening with both wild specimens and in the natural habitat of the species.'''

In hawks, almost all of their polymorphism is found on their ventral side. This allows for less common colorations to be favored since it will be recognized least. Polymorphism is defined by foraging strategies, one of which is apostatic selection. Because of the different morphs and the varying selection on them, changes in prey detection maintain prey polymorphism due to apostatic selection.

Apostatic selection can be reflected in Batesian mimicry. Aposematism and apostatic selection is used to explain defensive signaling like Batesian mimicry in certain species. A paper by Pfenning et al., 2006 looks into this concept. In allopatric situations, situations where separate species overlap geographically, mimic phenotypes have a really high fitness and are selected for when their model is present but when it is absent, they suffer intense predation. In this article it was suggested that this is caused by apostatic selection because strength of selection is higher on the mimics that are hidden by their original model.

In Batesian mimicry, if the mimic is less common than the model, then the rare mimic phenotype is favored because the predator has continued reinforcement that the prey is harmful or unpalatable. When the mimic becomes more common than the model, it switches and is preyed upon much more often. Therefore, the dishonest signals in prey can be selected for or against depending on predation pressure.

'''An example in birds is observed within ground dwelling passerines, in which the wild birds were kept in their natural habitat but were presented with dimorphic prey (artificial) (10). The two colors of prey were present in 9:1 ratios, and then the prey were switched so both colors were in the higher and lower ratio (10). In all four of the passerine species that were observed, the more common morph of the artifical prey were consumed, regardless of the color of it (10). This study also had a second component in which they allowed the birds to become familiar with one color of the prey, and then presented the dimorphic prey in equal amounts, in which the most common prey was consumed more frequently (10). This is consistent with the idea that the search image influences apostatic selection, and the more familiar form is encountered more making it preferred.'''

'''Apostatic selection has also been studied in cichlid fish, which presents a rare gold ('Midas') colour morph.They discussed how apostatic selection a plausible mechanism for the maintenance of this Midas morph, and ruled out various other explanations for this morph. It was concluded that the rare morph is established by a difference in the predators detection probability of the Midas morph (11). One limitation of this study is that since the morphs in the wild are not able to be manipulated, no definite conclusions can be made, but the evidence predicts apostatic selection.'''

Peer Review from User wnm428
This is a very interesting topic to contribute to! You have made significant contributions to the article so far.

A few suggestions to make some of the sentences in this article flow better, as highlighted in bold, are: "Search image shifts require multiple encounters with the new form of prey" (under the "search image" heading).

"Apostatic selection serves as a hypothesis for polymorphism because of the variation it causes in prey." (under "hypothesis for polymorphism" heading).

"If the frequency of the different prey types is continuously changing.." (under "environmental mechanisms" heading)

The sentence "Changes in prey detection of predators occurs, but the speed in which it occurs and the flexibility a predators search image in dependent on the environment." (under "environmental mechanisms" heading) is a little unclear and could use some rewording to make it flow better.

An additional suggestion on something that could be elaborated on would be to give more specific examples of animals in which apostatic selection and its features occur in, so that this could give readers a better understanding of how these processes work in real-life applications.

Overall, great work!

Peer Review by Abby Vander
This is a great article! I think you contributed interesting and relevant information that was displayed in an informative but neutral tone. In general it was well written, although you might want to proof read it again to double check some punctuation and sentence structure that could make your article flow better. You used various sources throughout the article which is good as it makes your work more reliable. You might want to contribute information from a few more sources under "Behavioural Basis for Apostatic Selection" since it appears that paragraph is only based on one source. This might allow you to expand more on the topic by using sources with different perspectives. It also might be a good idea to expand on the leading paragraph of the article, adding a few sentences highlighting your main contributions since the lead is an overview of the whole article and you've made significant work in expanding and improving the topic.

Overall great job! and good luck!! :)