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Limón, also known as Puerto Limón, is the capital city of both the Limón Province and canton of the same name. One of Costa Rica's seven "middle cities" (i.e., main cities outside of San José's Greater Metropolitan Area), Limón has a population of 71,514, which made it, as of 2022, the most-populous city in the country outside of the Greater Metropolitan Area and the second most-populous district in the nation.

Founded in 1854 by Philipp J. J. Valentini and officially established as a district in 1870 during the Liberal State, Limón is the only planned city in the country built in the 19th century. Located in the Caribbean coast, its purpose was to become the country's main port, a role the city still retains to this day, given its strategic location in the Caribbean Sea, close to the Panama Canal, to connect Costa Rica with North America, South America, the Caribbean, and Europe. The Moín Container Terminal, operated by Dutch-based APM Terminals, and the nearby Port of Moín, operated by the state-institution JAPDEVA, serve as the main economic ports for the country. The Port of Limón, located just South downtown, receives both cargo and cruise ships, though plans to convert it into a passenger terminal are underway.

The city is of historical significance for the country, as it was one of Christopher Columbus' moorings during his fourth and last voyage. On 25 September 1502, Colón recalls landing on a town named by the locals as Cariay, with the nearby Quiribrí island just offshore.

Today, Limón is recognized as one of Costa Rica's most culturally and racially diverse cities. It is one of the main communities of Afro-Costa Ricans in the country, mainly as a result of people of Jamaican descent arriving for the construction of the Atlantic railroad in the country, and a subsequent travel ban from the central government, which limited people of Afro-Caribbean origin to move outside of the Limón Province. Aside from Spanish, the Afro-Costa Rican community also speaks the English-based Limonese Creole.

Limón faces numerous problems, with the main one being the skyrocketing crime, as drug cartels confluence in the city due to its port being an important part of their drug-trafficking schemes, resulting in an alarming murder rate.

Toponymy
Puerto Limón is Spanish for port lemon. The city is homonymous to both the canton and province. Along with Guanacaste, Limón is one of the locations in the country that owes its name to a plant.

A previous name for the location was Cariay or Cariai, a name used by the aboriginal tribes from pre-Hispanic era up to the arrival of Christopher Columbus.

The origins of the name Limón are unknown, but by 1852, then-Costa Rican president Juan Rafael Mora Porras referred to the port as Puerto del Limón (Port of the Lemon).

Colony
Christopher Columbus first dropped anchor in Costa Rica in 1502 at Isla Uvita, just off the coast of Puerto Limón. The Atlantic coast, however, was left largely unexplored by Spanish settlers until the 19th century.

As early as 1569, Governor Perafán de Rivera gave extensive plots of land, Indians included, in Matina to aristocrats (hidalgos) that helped to finance and support early conquest. Because these aristocrats found out that only a few Indians were available to exploit, they acquired African slaves to plant these lands with cocoa trees (the only feasible crop in these lands). These lands provided the only source of income to the absentee owners from the capital city of Cartago. Matina gained importance because of the cacao and the presence of African slaves, which made them attractive to pirate incursions.

Notorious pirates, Edward Mansvelt and his vice admiral Henry Morgan, arrived at Portete, a small bay between Limón and Moín, in 1666. They proceeded inland to Cartago, the capital of Costa Rica at the time, but were driven away by the inhabitants at Turrialba on15 April. The pirate army left on16 April and arrived back in Portete on23 April. They left Costa Rica and did not return.

Foundation
The town was officially founded in 1854 by Philipp J. J. Valentini under government auspices. In 1867, construction began on an ambitious railroad connecting the highlands to the sea. Limón was chosen as the site of a major port, which would facilitate exports of coffee from the Central Valley.

Recent history
Twenty-three residents of Limón working on the docks lost their lives on3 July 1942, when the cargo ship they were unloading was torpedoed by U-boat GS U-161 (1941) and sank fast at the bottom of the port. Most of the crew was ashore and only one perished.

As a district, Limón was last modified on10 August 1992, by Decreto Ejecutivo 21515-G.

Puerto Limón was struck by the 1991 Limon earthquake, which affected the surrounding landscape and coastline.

Geography
Limón is situated on a cape along the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica, on the East side of the country. South of the National Route 32, two rivers converge into their drainage into the Caribbean Sea: the Limoncito and the Cieneguita rivers, both of which are surrounded by numerous neighborhoods.

Two islands surround the city. The Uvita Island is less than a kilometer East of downtown Limón, while the smaller Isla de Pájaros (Birds Island) lies just north of the nearby Bonita Beach.

The district has an area of 59.51 km2 and an elevation of 3 m

Locations
Limón is divided into neighborhoods (barrios) and villages (poblados or villas).

The barrios are as follows:

The poblados are as follows:

Climate
Limón features a trade wind tropical rainforest climate (Af) under Köppen's climate classification. Average temperatures are relatively consistent throughout the year averaging around 26 C. Common to all cities with this climate, Limón has no consistently dry season. Its driest month (September) averages roughly 140 mm of rainfall while its wettest (December) averages just below 450 mm of rain. Limón averages nearly 3600 mm of rainfall annually.

Afro-Costa Ricans
The first officially acknowledged arrival of African people who arrived in Costa Rica came with the Spanish conquistadors. Slave trading was common in all the countries conquered by Spain, and in Costa Rica, the first Africans seem to have come from specific sources in Africa– Equatorial and Western regions. The people from these areas were thought of as ideal slaves because they had a reputation for being more robust, affable, and hard-working than other Africans. The enslaved were from what is now the Gambia (Wolof), Guinea (Malinké), Ghanaian (Ashanti), Benin (specifically Ije / Ararás), and Sudan (Puras). Many of the enslaved were also Minas (i.e. communities from parts of the region extending from Ivory Coast to the Slave Coast), Popo (imported tribes such as Ana and Baribas), Yorubas and Congas (perhaps from Kongasso, Ivory Coast). Enslaved Africans also came from other places, such as neighboring Panama. Throughout the centuries, but especially after the emancipation of the slaves in 1824, the black population mixed with other ethnic groups, notably the Indians, and became part of the mainstream culture and ethnicity.

The early black population of Matina and Suerre in Limón is not the same population that arrived in the second half of the 19th century. This latter population did not arrive as slaves but as hired workers from Jamaica, and smaller groups from Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago. This is the reason why the majority of the current black population of Costa Rica has English surnames and speaks English with a Jamaican accent.

In 1910, Marcus Mosiah Garvey travelled to Puerto Limón, where he worked as a time-keeper for the United Fruit Company for some months, observing that the population of African descent suffered poor conditions.

The descendants of Africans in Costa Rica have endured discrimination including a delay in voting rights and a restriction on their movements.

Primary and secondary schools
In 1877, after the city foundation, then-Costa Rican president Tomás Guardia Gutiérrez ordered the construction of a primary school, the Men's Higher School Institute. It was then renewed in further decades and renamed after Guardia. A women's school, named after Rafael Iglesias Castro, was inaugurated in 1922.

The first secondary school was inaugurated in 1945, the Colegio de Limón, eventually renamed Colegio de Limón Diurno (Limón Day School) to differentiate it from other high schools that appeared in later decades, particularly the Colegio Nocturno de Limón (Limón Night School), which uses the same campus as the Day School but has a different administration. Those schools include the Colegio Técnico Profesional de Limón (Limón Professional-Technical School), the Liceo Nuevo de Limón (Limón New Lyceum), eventually renamed Liceo Mario Bourne after its founder and first principal, the Colegio Deportivo de Limón (Limón Sports School), and the Colegio de Pacuare, named after the neighborhood it is located in.

Limón's public education schools often struggle due to poor infrascture and low public support. The Limón Sports School is a primary example of this, as the school abandoned its previous installations in the Pacuare neighborhood (which were eventually overtaken by the Pacuare High School) and moved to Limón's New Stadium or JAPDEVA's installations in downtown Limón.

In 2002, the Scientific High School of Limón was inaugurated, and has since been run by the Distance State University at the local campus.

Higher education
Limón is home to numerous universities. Out of the five public universities in the country, three have a campus in Limón: the University of Costa Rica (UCR) and the Distance State University (UNED) have their campuses along Route 32, while the Costa Rica Institute of Technology (ITCR or TEC) is located downtown, in front of the Limón Day School.

Another institution is the University College of Limón (CUNLIMÓN), a public-funded, semi-autonomous university founded in 2002.

Moreover, some private universities also have a building in Limón, namely the Autonomous University of Central America (UACA), the Castro Carazo University, and the Free University of Costa Rica (ULICORI).

Transport
Two main highways serve Limón. The National Route 32 is one of the country's primary roads, and connects Limón to the Greater Metropolitan Area. One of the route ends is located just next to the Balvanero Vargas park. Because of Limón's situation as the country's main port, Route 32 is the most important route for exportations in Costa Rica, accounting for around 83% of national exports. Close to its Eastern end, Route 32 is crossed by Route 36, another of Costa Rica's primary roads. This route connects Limón to the neighboring districts of Matama and Valle La Estrella, to the Talamanca canton, and in turn, to Panama through the Sixaola River bridge.

Three secondary routes are located in Limón, all of which are connected to Route 32. Route 240 encloses the northern portion of the city, while Route 241 encloses the southern portion, extending further South until meeting Route 36 in Bananito. Route 257 connects Route 32 with the Moín Container Terminal.

Art
A number of artists born in other parts of the country have settled in Limón and based their arts on the city and its culture. One such prominent figure is that of Ricardo "Negrín" Rodríguez, who was mostly remembered for painting in the corridor of his house in downtown Limón. Another artist is Édgar León, born in San José but raised in Limón, his early paintings depicted landscapes from the city. Other artists include Honorio Cabraca, Vicky de Solano, and Édgar "Nanny" Ramírez.

An important center for visual arts is the art gallery from the Pasaje Cristal (Crystal Passage), next to the boulevard that leads to the Balvanero Vargas park. The gallery, aside from paintings, features memorabilia from the Black Star Line building, destroyed by a fire in April 2016.

Carnival
Puerto Limón is famous in Costa Rica for its yearly fall carnival which occurs the week of 12 October, on the eve of Columbus Day. The event was started by local community leader and activist, Alfred Josiah Henry Smith, also known as "Mister King", who helped organize the first carnival in October 1949. The event stretches about a week (across two weekends), and includes a parade, food, music, dancing, and on the last night, a concert in the Balvanero Vargas park, headlined by a major Latino or Caribbean music act. Previous artists have included Eddy Herrera (2002), Damian Marley (2003), El Gran Combo de Puerto Rico (2005), and T.O.K. (2006).

The carnival has encountered some setbacks in recent years. Organizers cancelled the 2007 carnival due to a major dengue fever outbreak, and again in 2008 due to major municipal trash-removal issues and related health worries. While trash removal had long been an issue due to lack of trucks and a 62 mi haul to the nearest landfill (in Pococí), the ordered closure of this and other landfills in 2007 meant Puerto Limón had to send trash 135 mi to Alajuela and pay a higher disposal fee. The situation led to a bottle-neck in trash removal, which, combined with the major dengue breakout, caused organizers to cancel 2008's carnaval as a precautionary measure. Given the severity of the situation, the city bought land in nearby Santa Rosa and, in April 2009, opened its landfill (called El Tomatal). Given the improved situation, Carnaval picked up in 2009 after its two-year hiatus.

Cuisine
The gastronomy of Limón diverges significantly from that of the rest of Costa Rica, and has very close ties to the Jamaican cuisine given the deep relations between the country and the Afro-Costa Ricans in the city. Likewise, other Caribbean countries also influence the Limonese cuisine.

Staple limonese dishes of Jamaican origin are rice and beans and the patty.

Language
As is the case with the entirety of the country, the main language spoken in Limón is Spanish. However, there is a large amount of the local population, predominantly those of Afro-Caribbean origins, who speak an English-based creole commonly known as Mekatelyu, considered a dialect of Jamaican Patois, given the ties between Jamaica and most Afro-Costa Rican people.

Recent years have seen a renewed interest in protecting and revitalizing the language. Linguist Juan Diego Quesada Pacheco pointed that the Limonese Creole has been historically neglected, as it is spoken by more people than local indigenous languages, yet it has less support by government authorities. Quesada Pacheco led a project to elaborate the grammar of many indigenous and creole languages of Central American, including Limonese Creole, an investigation for which he was awarded by the Ministry of Culture in 2017. This investigation served as the basis for translators Kheomara Cunningham and René Zúñiga to publish Di Likl Prins, a Limonese Creole-translation of The Little Prince eventually published in 2021.

Literature
One of the most prominent writers from Limón is Joaquín Gutiérrez, known for novellas such as Cocorí, which is taught in Costa Rican primary schools, although it has raised controversies due to its allegedly racist tone. Afro-Costa Rican politicians such as Epsy Campbell Barr and Maureen Clarke have been critical of the book and requested its exclusion from the public-education mantadory readings. Other novellas by Gutiérrez include La hoja de aire and Murámonos, Federico.

Quince Duncan is another important writer from the city. Despite being born in San José, he was raised in Estrada, Matina, near Limón. An Afro-Costa Rican, Duncan has devoted his career to the identity of Costa Ricans of African descent, and denouncing racism in the country.

Limón and its Afro-Costa Rican populace have served of inspiration for numerous writers from other parts of the country, such as Anacristina Rossi with novels such as Limón Blues and Limón Reggae, and Tatiana Lobo with Calypso. Mamita Yunai, written by Carlos Luis Fallas, is a semi-autobiographical novel which denounces the poor working conditions in the banana plantations in Limón and nearby areas under the United Fruit Company.

Sports
Described as "a hotbed for sports," Limón is nationally renowned for its strong contribution to sports, in spite of the numerous challenges faced by the population. The has spawned numerous athletes such as Nery Brenes, Sharolyn Scott, and Sherman Guity, the latter of whom became the first Costa Rican to win a medal at the Paralympics, as he won a Silver and a Gold medal at the 2020 Summer Paralympics.

Football is also a very popular sport in the city. The city was represented by the Limon Gymnastics Society (In Spanish: Sociedad Gimnástica Limonense) at the first season of the Costa Rican Primera División, also taking part in the first match ever played. The team was eventually succeeded by further iterations, such as A.D. Limonense (also known as ASODELI), Limón FC, and the present-day Limón Black Star, all of whom have largely played at the Estadio Juan Gobán, in downtown Limón.

Limón is also the birthplace of Juan Cayasso, a historical figure for the Costa Rica national football team. On 11 June 1990, the team made its debut at a FIFA World Cup by defeating Scotland at the 1990 FIFA World Cup. Cayasso scored the lone goal, becoming the first Costa Rican to score a goal at a FIFA World Cup, which in turn gave the team its first-ever victory at the tournament.