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Carceral feminism is a term from the 1990's used to describe feminist activism that calls for punitive policies and laws passed in response to sexual, legal, and physical violence against women. In order to counteract violence against women, the local, state, or federal government, criminal justice reforms have taken place. There has been an increase in policing and more arrests have been against the perpetrators and victims of violence. The debate about carceral feminism has gained momentum. Many suggest that these policies are solutions to violence against women while others believe that carceral feminism is not effective and other alternatives should be considered.

Origins
Before carceral feminism came to exist, its predecessor can be traced back to the height of second-wave feminism. Most feminists and conservative Christian groups of the 1960's and 1970's focused their attention on a majority of issues concerning women's rights. One issue of such importance was stopping the violence against women. Some second-wave feminists believed that violence against women was a result of tight hegemonic control within the private domestic sphere, within homes. They also declared that economic factors played a role in oppressing women. On the other hand, Christian organizations were widely focused on culturally moral crusades, of reducing or eliminating pornography, abortion, gay rights, alcohol, etc.

Trafficking
Despite the disagreements between the left and the right over hot-button issues such as abortion and prostitution, an unlikely coalition of evangelical Christian and liberal feminists groups have emerged (groups such as: NOW, CATW, Evangelicals for Social Action, New York Asian Women’s Center, International Justice Mission) in the late 1980's to 1990's to fight against human trafficking and prostitution. Both sides have demonstrated resounding efforts to fight for stricter regulations to stop human trafficking and the overall exploitation of women domestically and internationally. The idea of women needing to be rescued has advanced into underdeveloped countries.

There has been intense lobbying for longer sentences for those involved with human trafficking, from pimps, traffickers, to those being trafficked. One example is National Organization for Women (NOW) lobbying for bill that leads to a lengthened one year sentence instead of nineteen days for those that pay for sex (which was eventually passed in New York in 2007). There's an argument made that locking up those involved with sexual/human trafficking will help to create healthy nuclear families. Men will be more likely to reconsider paying for the solicitation of sex because they fear having to serve time in jails or prisons. Young females will be less likely to be lured out of the home to be sold into prostitution or sex trafficking by pimps and traffickers.

Sexual agency
Sexual agency means having the choice of one's sexuality. The idea of one being able to choose has been at the center of third-wave feminism. Despite given the choice of abstinence or willingly engaging in sexual activity, studies have argued that neoliberalism has restricted and dimmed this concept of choice. Neoliberalism has done so by promoting individual responsibility, especially when it comes to choice of sexual expression. If one chooses to be promiscuous, she is blamed for her choice. This fuels the need to continue to have "carceral heroes" and carceral feminism to protect the vulnerable woman.

Violence Against Women Act
The Violence Against Women Act (also known as VAWA) was a law that brought more attention to the issue of violence against all women. It came into existence because of different efforts. In 1990, Senator Joe Biden introduced his counsel's widely supported draft of the bill in Congress. It would eventually become a bi-partisan measure that was co-sponsored by Senator Orrin Hatch (R-UT) and Senator Joe Biden (D-DE). Coupled with overwhelming Congressional support, a unified coalition of conservative and liberal groups began lobbying for the passage of laws to protect abused and battered women, regardless of race, background, or immigration status. The act was signed into law by President Bill Clinton as a part of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994. The act's main provisions were: giving more funding to law enforcement, social and political groups that were fighting against gendered violence, stricter penalties were enforced against violent offenders, and actual protections were guaranteed for some immigrants that faced domestic or sexual violence. This act also led to states and local law enforcement having more political clout on preventing violence against women. Players such as police officers and prosecutors sought to increase the incarceration rate by locking up violent offenders. They also began to work closely with feminist organizations and social service groups, as both sides invoked collectivism to challenge violence that targets women. One could imply that this would also mean bridging the idea of feminism and carcerality together.

Opposition
There are many reasons as to why there's opposition against carceral feminism. One argument made is that carceral feminism has led to a crackdown within the inner-city, the ghettos of America. Carceral feminism has led to an overwhelming number of arrests made against those that already marginalized. As police officers are called to the site of where a dispute has taken place, they have an obligation to arrest those implicated under "mandatory arrest policies." There are claims that the need to arrest individuals affect those that have been under constant surveillance by the police and have lengthy criminal records. Another argument is that the solution to violence against women would lead to justification for enacting continuing to rely on criminality as a solution to problems, hence incarceration fuels the prison-industrial complex. One such sociologist goes as far to question the evidence and reasoning given to support the fact that carceral feminism is a solution to violence against women.

Transformative feminism
Transformative feminism is feminism that focuses on turning away from having to rely on prisons as an answer to social and economic problems. Supporters of this type of feminism actually call for the decarceration, the process of releasing individuals from jails, prisons, or penitentiaries. Instead, they are contemplating on executing alternative options. It calls for community building and communal responsibility to analyze the reasons behind mass incarceration. (Mass incarceration has particularly affected women during the recent years.) Researchers imply that communities should realize that harsh sentences for drug possession and drug dealing (War on Drugs), "inappropriate" behavior, and neglect of human rights have led to the increasing trend of women being incarcerated. Instead of focusing on policing and punitive measures, researchers believe that attention should be directed and placed on the understanding of social, economic, cultural pretexts behind incarceration.

Intersectionality
Intersectionality (or intersectional feminism) is a theory developed and advocated for by Kimberlé Williams Crenshaw. Intersectionality is a method that requires the understanding an individual's finished composition by determining the varied elements or characteristics possessed. It calls for the analyzing of different factors such as race, economics, and politics that contributes to different forms of violence against women and following that, determining the necessary strategies that should be utilized to counter violence.

Media portrayal

 * Call and Response
 * Very Young Girls
 * investigative specials that focus on carceral feminism, human trafficking

Origins
Before carceral feminism came to exist, its predecessor can be traced back to the height of second-wave feminism. Most feminists and conservative Christian groups of the 1960's and 1970's focused their attention on a majority of issues, such as stopping the violence against women.

Second-wave feminists believed that violence against women was a result of tight hegemonic control within the private domestic sphere, within homes. They also declared that economic factors played a role in oppressing women.

On the other hand, Christian organizations were widely focused on culturally moral crusades, of reducing or eliminating pornography, abortion, gay rights, alcohol, etc.

Trafficking
Despite the disagreements between the left and the right over hot-button issues such as abortion and prostitution, an unlikely coalition of evangelical Christian and liberal feminists groups have emerged (groups such as: NOW, CATW, Evangelicals for Social Action, New York Asian Women’s Center, International Justice Mission) in the late 1980's to 1990's to fight against human trafficking and prostitution. Both sides have demonstrated resounding efforts to fight for stricter standards and regulations in regards to stopping human trafficking and the overall exploitation of women domestically and internationally. The idea of women needing to be rescued has advanced into underdeveloped countries.

There has been intense lobbying for longer sentences for those involved with human trafficking, from pimps, traffickers, to those being trafficked. One example is NOW NY lobbying for a lengthened one year sentence instead of nineteen days for those that pay for sex (2007 bill passed in NY after lobbying from a unified conservative and liberal coalition). There's an argument made that locking up those involved with sexual/human trafficking will help to create healthy nuclear families. Men will be more likely to reconsider paying for the solicitation of sex because they fear having to serve time in jails or prisons. Young females will be less likely to be lured out of the home to be sold into prostitution or sex trafficking by pimps and traffickers.

Sexual Agency
Sexual agency means having the choice of one's sexuality. The idea of one being able to choose has been at the center of third-wave feminism. Despite given the choice of abstinence or engaging in sexual activity, studies have argued that neoliberalism has restricted and dimmed this concept of choice. Neoliberalism has done so by promoting individual responsibility, especially when it comes to choice of sexual expression. If one chooses to be promiscuous, she is blamed for her choice. This fuels the need to continue to have "carceral heroes" and carceral feminism to protect the vulnerable woman.

Violence Against Women Act (1994)
This law was passed in response to the lobbying of a unified coalition of conservatives and liberals to fight against the violence that effects women.

Opposition
There are many reasons as to why there's opposition against carceral feminism. One argument made is that carceral feminism has led to a crackdown within the inner-city, the ghettos of America. Carceral feminism has led to an overwhelming number of arrests made against those that already marginalized. Another argument is that the solution to violence against women would lead to justification for enacting continuing to rely on criminality as a solution to problems, hence incarceration fuels the prison-industrial complex. One such sociologist goes as far to question the evidence and reasoning given to support the fact that carceral feminism is a solution to violence against women.

Transformative feminism
Transformative feminism is feminism that focuses on the approach of turning away from relying on prisons and incarceration. Supporters of this type of feminism actually call for the destruction of incarceration, of the complete dismantling of prisons and prison systems. Instead, they are looking at alternative methods. It calls for community building and communal responsibility to analyze the reasons behind mass incarceration. The community should realize that harsh sentences for drug possession and drug dealing (War on Drugs), "inappropriate" behavior, and neglect of human rights have led to the increasing amount of women in prison. Instead of focusing on policing and punitive measures, there's a focus on understanding the social, economic, cultural pretexts behind incarceration.

Media Portrayal

 * Call and Response
 * Very Young Girls
 * investigative specials that focus on carceral feminism, human trafficking